"Hair lightening," referred to as "bleaching" or "decolorizing," is a chemical process involving the diffusion of the natural color pigment or artificial color from the hair plus the raising of the cuticle making the hair more porous. This process is central to both permanent hair color and hair lighteners. Most hair lighteners and bleaches can make your hair turn gray at a younger age.
Application techniques
Typically, hair coloring is used in one of two ways:
1. One color is applied to all hair on the head, to produce a uniform color effect, or
2. Several individual color preparations are applied to selected sections of the hair, to produce streaks or gradations of color.
The latter technique can be used to create many different effects, from subtle highlights acquired during a day at the beach, to more dramatic looks, such as bold, chunky highlights. The terms most commonly used to describe these techniques are:
* Highlighting, where sections of hair are treated with lighteners, usually to create blond streaks.
* Lowlighting, where sections of hair are treated with darker hair color.
* Foils, where pieces of foil or plastic film is used to separate off the hair to be colored; especially when applying more than one color.
* Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tight on the head and strands are pulled through with a hook.
* Balayage, where hair color is painted directly onto sections of the hair with no foils used to keep the color contained.
Both application techniques can be used with either color treatments that range from temporary to permanent.
Exotic hair colorants
While the majority of hair coloring products are designed to produce natural-looking hair color shades (typically blond, red, brown or black), a minority of hair coloring products are designed to create hair colors not typically found in nature. These are available in almost any color imaginable, including green or fuchsia.
These dyes are typically sold in punk-themed stores (such as comic book and music stores). In the U.S. they are sometimes sold under the brand names "Beyond The Zone", "Clairol Jazzing", "Manic Panic", "Special Effects", "Punky Colors", and a permanent alternative in some colors (like INTENSE infa-red reds and darky inky purples and blues) is available in the U.S. under "Paul Mitchel: Inkworks" and "Chi: InfaReds". Some exotic color shades are blacklight reactive, which suggests that the wearers typically want their hair color to show up under nightclub lighting.
The chemical formulae of exotic colored dyes typically contain only tint, and have no developer. This means that they will only create the bright color of the packet if they are applied to light blond hair. Therefore, the majority with darker hair (medium brown to black) are advised to use a bleaching kit prior to tint application in order to get the full effect of the color. Some people with fair hair may benefit from prior bleaching as well, as the yellow undertones of blonde hair can make blue dye look green, and to make the hair porous to easily absorb the pigments into the hair shaft. With colors like pinks, blues,and greens its extremely important to make sure you lighten the hair to a light enough blonde. Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair that hasn't lightened enough can adversely affect results.
Monday, March 9, 2009
Types of hair color
Hair coloring products are typically categorized based on the length of time they effect the colored hair. The four most common classifications are 'temporary', 'semi-permanent', 'demi-permanent' (sometimes called 'deposit only) and permanent.
Temporary hair color
The pigment molecules in temporary hair color are large and, therefore, do not penetrate the cuticle layer, allowing only a coating action that may be removed by shampooing.
Acid dyes are used to coat the surface of hair, since acid dyes have a low affinity to hair, thus can be removed after a shampoo. The penetration and color strength of temporary hair color can usually be improved by applying a bleaching prior to the application of the hair color.
Temporary hair color is available in various product forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, foams and others. This type of hair color is typically used to give brighter, more vibrant shades or colors such as orange or red, that may be difficult to achieve with semi-permanent and permanent hair color. Temporary color is also used by some teens for events at school and Halloween. This phenomenon is because temporary hair colorants do not penetrate the hair shaft itself. Instead, these color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the hair shaft and can be easily removed with a single shampooing. However, even temporary hair coloring agents can persist if the user's hair is excessively dry or damaged, conditions that allow for migration of the pigments from the exterior to the interior of the hair shaft. While temporary hair color products hold a lesser market than semi-permanent and permanent agents, they have value in that they can be easily and quickly removed without bleaching or application of a different coloring product.
Semipermanent hair color
Formulated to deposit color on the hair shaft without lightening it. This formula has smaller molecules than those of temporary tinting formulas, and is therefore able to partially penetrate the hair shaft. It has no developer, but may be used with heat for deeper penetration. It also lasts longer than temporary hair color, keeping mostly intact up to 4-5 shampoos. They are great for hair that is damaged and fragile. Semi hair color has no Ammonia.
'Demi Permanent' hair color
Companies like Compagnia Del Colore from Italy have found a way to change the color pigment molecules to be smaller than that of semi permanent hair color but still larger than permanent hair color molecules. This is done by mixing permanent hair color with low volume (usually a 7 volume developer) that blows off the ammonia from the permanent tube and deposits color molecules only into the hair shaft. A demi is gentler than permanent color used whenever you want to deposit color without lifting the natural pigment but with the penetration being more than semi permanent color and less than permanent, the results last longer than semi but shorter than permanent hair color. Since they are more gentle than permanent hair color, they are great for tint-backs and colorpriming. They are also great for toning pre-lightened hair. Because there is no lifting of natural hair color, they are not as effective on dark hair, due to the over-powering color already existing in the hair.
Semi permanent hair color should be used with caution. For many of these kinds of tints, especially the darker tones, the 'semi' aspect is less active; the coloring is much more on the 'permanent' side than the temporary. For example, when coloring your hair with a black 'semi-permanent' dye that should last for roughly 28 shampoos, you should expect the color to last longer and fade more slowly, regardless of what the box may or may not disclose.
Permanent color
All "permanent" haircolor products and lighteners contain both a developer, or oxidizing agent, and an alkalizing ingredient as part of their ammonia or an ammonia substitute. The purpose of this is to:
* raise the cuticle of the hair fiber so the tint can penetrate,
* facilitate the formation of tints within the hair fiber,
* bring about the lightening action of peroxide.
When the tint containing the alkalizing ingredient is combined with the developer (usually hydrogen peroxide), the peroxide becomes alkaline and diffuses through the hair fiber, entering the cortex, where the melanin is located. The lightening occurs when the alkaline peroxide breaks up the melanin and replaces it with new color.
Permanent Color is the best choice for grey hair coverage. It has an oxidizing colorant that also uses ammonia and peroxide to lift and deposit the new color, going deep into the hair shaft. The use of ammonia opens the cuticle of the hair to allow the color pigments to penetrate deep into the hair shaft.
When coloring your hair with a permanent tint, you should first remember the fact that it's permanent. It sounds simple, but this color will not fade or become less vibrant if it's doing its job. Your natural hair color will reappear when your roots begin to grow, and you should expect to have to tint it more than once to maintain your new color. If you want to get rid of the added color, you will either have to remove the color with a stripping process (depending on the color of the tint) or color it back to its natural color. Either way, permanent hair color is more difficult to maintain, and to get rid of.
Temporary hair color
The pigment molecules in temporary hair color are large and, therefore, do not penetrate the cuticle layer, allowing only a coating action that may be removed by shampooing.
Acid dyes are used to coat the surface of hair, since acid dyes have a low affinity to hair, thus can be removed after a shampoo. The penetration and color strength of temporary hair color can usually be improved by applying a bleaching prior to the application of the hair color.
Temporary hair color is available in various product forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, foams and others. This type of hair color is typically used to give brighter, more vibrant shades or colors such as orange or red, that may be difficult to achieve with semi-permanent and permanent hair color. Temporary color is also used by some teens for events at school and Halloween. This phenomenon is because temporary hair colorants do not penetrate the hair shaft itself. Instead, these color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the hair shaft and can be easily removed with a single shampooing. However, even temporary hair coloring agents can persist if the user's hair is excessively dry or damaged, conditions that allow for migration of the pigments from the exterior to the interior of the hair shaft. While temporary hair color products hold a lesser market than semi-permanent and permanent agents, they have value in that they can be easily and quickly removed without bleaching or application of a different coloring product.
Semipermanent hair color
Formulated to deposit color on the hair shaft without lightening it. This formula has smaller molecules than those of temporary tinting formulas, and is therefore able to partially penetrate the hair shaft. It has no developer, but may be used with heat for deeper penetration. It also lasts longer than temporary hair color, keeping mostly intact up to 4-5 shampoos. They are great for hair that is damaged and fragile. Semi hair color has no Ammonia.
'Demi Permanent' hair color
Companies like Compagnia Del Colore from Italy have found a way to change the color pigment molecules to be smaller than that of semi permanent hair color but still larger than permanent hair color molecules. This is done by mixing permanent hair color with low volume (usually a 7 volume developer) that blows off the ammonia from the permanent tube and deposits color molecules only into the hair shaft. A demi is gentler than permanent color used whenever you want to deposit color without lifting the natural pigment but with the penetration being more than semi permanent color and less than permanent, the results last longer than semi but shorter than permanent hair color. Since they are more gentle than permanent hair color, they are great for tint-backs and colorpriming. They are also great for toning pre-lightened hair. Because there is no lifting of natural hair color, they are not as effective on dark hair, due to the over-powering color already existing in the hair.
Semi permanent hair color should be used with caution. For many of these kinds of tints, especially the darker tones, the 'semi' aspect is less active; the coloring is much more on the 'permanent' side than the temporary. For example, when coloring your hair with a black 'semi-permanent' dye that should last for roughly 28 shampoos, you should expect the color to last longer and fade more slowly, regardless of what the box may or may not disclose.
Permanent color
All "permanent" haircolor products and lighteners contain both a developer, or oxidizing agent, and an alkalizing ingredient as part of their ammonia or an ammonia substitute. The purpose of this is to:
* raise the cuticle of the hair fiber so the tint can penetrate,
* facilitate the formation of tints within the hair fiber,
* bring about the lightening action of peroxide.
When the tint containing the alkalizing ingredient is combined with the developer (usually hydrogen peroxide), the peroxide becomes alkaline and diffuses through the hair fiber, entering the cortex, where the melanin is located. The lightening occurs when the alkaline peroxide breaks up the melanin and replaces it with new color.
Permanent Color is the best choice for grey hair coverage. It has an oxidizing colorant that also uses ammonia and peroxide to lift and deposit the new color, going deep into the hair shaft. The use of ammonia opens the cuticle of the hair to allow the color pigments to penetrate deep into the hair shaft.
When coloring your hair with a permanent tint, you should first remember the fact that it's permanent. It sounds simple, but this color will not fade or become less vibrant if it's doing its job. Your natural hair color will reappear when your roots begin to grow, and you should expect to have to tint it more than once to maintain your new color. If you want to get rid of the added color, you will either have to remove the color with a stripping process (depending on the color of the tint) or color it back to its natural color. Either way, permanent hair color is more difficult to maintain, and to get rid of.
Specialized shampoos
Dandruff
Cosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have dandruff. These contain fungicides such as ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione and selenium sulfide which reduce loose dander by killing Malassezia furfur. Coal tar and salicylate derivatives are often used as well.
All-natural
Some companies use "all-natural," "organic," "botanical," or "plant-derived" ingredients (such as plant extracts or oils), combining these additions with one or more typical surfactants. The effectiveness of these organic ingredients is disputed.
Alternative shampoos, sometimes marketed as SLS-free, claim to have fewer harsh chemicals - typically none from the sulfate family. They are sometimes claimed to be gentler on human hair.
Baby
Shampoo for infants and young children is formulated so that it is less irritating and usually less prone to produce a stinging or burning sensation if it were to get into the eyes. This is accomplished by one or more of the following formulation strategies:
1. dilution, in case product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution;
2. adjusting pH to that of non-stress tears, approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap;
3. use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos;
4. use of nonionic surfactants of the form of polyethoxylated synthetic glycolipids and/or polyethoxylated synthetic monoglycerides, which surfactants counteract the eye sting of other surfactants without producing the anesthetizing effect of alkyl polyethoxylates or alkylphenol polyethoxylates.
The distinction in 4 above does not completely surmount controversy over the use of shampoo ingredients to mitigate eye sting produced by other ingredients, or of use of the products so formulated.
The considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency and/or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the better baby shampoos.
Animal
Shampoo for animals (such as for dogs or cats) should be formulated especially for them, as their skin has fewer cell layers than human skin. Cats' skin is 2-3 cell layers thick, while dogs' skin is 3-5 layers. Human skin, by contrast, is 10-15 cell layers thick. This is the main reason why one should never use even something as mild as baby shampoo on a cat, dog, or other pet.
Shampoo intended for animals may contain insecticides or other medications for treatment of skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas or mange. These must never be used on humans. It is equally important to note that while some human shampoos may be harmful when used on animals, any haircare products that contain active ingredients/drugs (such as zinc in antidandruff shampoos) are potentially toxic when ingested by animals. Special care must be taken not to use those products on pets. Cats are at particular risk due to their instinctive method of grooming their fur with their tongues.
Solid
Solid shampoos or shampoo bars use as their surfactants soaps and/or other surfactants conveniently formulated as solids. They have the advantage of being spill-proof, and the disadvantage of being slowly applied, needing to be dissolved in use.
Jelly/Gel
Stiff, non-pourable clear gels to be squeezed from a tube were once popular forms of shampoo, and can be produced by increasing a shampoo's viscosity. This type of shampoo cannnot be spilled, but unlike a solid, it can still be lost down the drain by sliding off wet skin or hair. Soap jelly was formerly made at home by dissolving sodium soap in hot water before being used for shampooing or other purposes, to avoid the problem of slow application of solids noted above.
Paste/cream
Shampoos in the form of pastes or creams were formerly marketed in jars or tubes. The contents were wet but not completely dissolved. They would apply faster than solids and dissolve quickly. Jar contents were prone to contamination by users and hence had to be very well preserved.
Dry shampoo
Powdered shampoos are designed to work without water. They are typically based on powders such as starch or talc, and are intended to absorb excess sebum from the hair before being brushed out. Hair tends not to "look" as clean as when washed with conventional shampoos.
Cosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have dandruff. These contain fungicides such as ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione and selenium sulfide which reduce loose dander by killing Malassezia furfur. Coal tar and salicylate derivatives are often used as well.
All-natural
Some companies use "all-natural," "organic," "botanical," or "plant-derived" ingredients (such as plant extracts or oils), combining these additions with one or more typical surfactants. The effectiveness of these organic ingredients is disputed.
Alternative shampoos, sometimes marketed as SLS-free, claim to have fewer harsh chemicals - typically none from the sulfate family. They are sometimes claimed to be gentler on human hair.
Baby
Shampoo for infants and young children is formulated so that it is less irritating and usually less prone to produce a stinging or burning sensation if it were to get into the eyes. This is accomplished by one or more of the following formulation strategies:
1. dilution, in case product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution;
2. adjusting pH to that of non-stress tears, approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap;
3. use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos;
4. use of nonionic surfactants of the form of polyethoxylated synthetic glycolipids and/or polyethoxylated synthetic monoglycerides, which surfactants counteract the eye sting of other surfactants without producing the anesthetizing effect of alkyl polyethoxylates or alkylphenol polyethoxylates.
The distinction in 4 above does not completely surmount controversy over the use of shampoo ingredients to mitigate eye sting produced by other ingredients, or of use of the products so formulated.
The considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency and/or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the better baby shampoos.
Animal
Shampoo for animals (such as for dogs or cats) should be formulated especially for them, as their skin has fewer cell layers than human skin. Cats' skin is 2-3 cell layers thick, while dogs' skin is 3-5 layers. Human skin, by contrast, is 10-15 cell layers thick. This is the main reason why one should never use even something as mild as baby shampoo on a cat, dog, or other pet.
Shampoo intended for animals may contain insecticides or other medications for treatment of skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas or mange. These must never be used on humans. It is equally important to note that while some human shampoos may be harmful when used on animals, any haircare products that contain active ingredients/drugs (such as zinc in antidandruff shampoos) are potentially toxic when ingested by animals. Special care must be taken not to use those products on pets. Cats are at particular risk due to their instinctive method of grooming their fur with their tongues.
Solid
Solid shampoos or shampoo bars use as their surfactants soaps and/or other surfactants conveniently formulated as solids. They have the advantage of being spill-proof, and the disadvantage of being slowly applied, needing to be dissolved in use.
Jelly/Gel
Stiff, non-pourable clear gels to be squeezed from a tube were once popular forms of shampoo, and can be produced by increasing a shampoo's viscosity. This type of shampoo cannnot be spilled, but unlike a solid, it can still be lost down the drain by sliding off wet skin or hair. Soap jelly was formerly made at home by dissolving sodium soap in hot water before being used for shampooing or other purposes, to avoid the problem of slow application of solids noted above.
Paste/cream
Shampoos in the form of pastes or creams were formerly marketed in jars or tubes. The contents were wet but not completely dissolved. They would apply faster than solids and dissolve quickly. Jar contents were prone to contamination by users and hence had to be very well preserved.
Dry shampoo
Powdered shampoos are designed to work without water. They are typically based on powders such as starch or talc, and are intended to absorb excess sebum from the hair before being brushed out. Hair tends not to "look" as clean as when washed with conventional shampoos.
Shampoo
Shampoo is a hair care product used for the removal of oils, dirt, skin particles, dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that gradually build up in hair. The goal is to remove the unwanted build-up without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable.
Shampoo, when lathered with water, is a surfactant, which, while cleaning the hair and scalp, can remove the natural oils (sebum) which lubricate the hair shaft.
Shampooing is frequently followed by conditioners which increase the ease of combing and styling.
How shampoo works
Shampoo cleans by stripping sebum from the hair. Sebum is an oil secreted by hair follicles that is readily absorbed by the strands of hair, and forms a protective layer. Sebum protects the protein structure of hair from damage, but this protection comes at a cost. It tends to collect dirt, styling products and scalp flakes. Surfactants strip the sebum from the hair shafts and thereby remove the dirt attached to it.
While both soaps and shampoos contain surfactants, soap bonds to oils with such affinity that it removes too much if used on hair. Shampoo uses a different class of surfactants balanced to avoid removing too much oil from the hair.
The chemical mechanisms that underlie hair cleansing are similar to that of traditional soap. Undamaged hair has a hydrophobic surface to which skin lipids such as sebum stick, but water is initially repelled. The lipids do not come off easily when the hair is rinsed with plain water. The anionic surfactants substantially reduce the interfacial surface tension and allow for the removal of the sebum from the hair shaft. The non-polar oily materials on the hair shaft are solubilised into the surfactant micelle structures of the shampoo and are removed during rinsing. There is also considerable removal through a surfactant and oil "roll up" effect.
Shampoo, when lathered with water, is a surfactant, which, while cleaning the hair and scalp, can remove the natural oils (sebum) which lubricate the hair shaft.
Shampooing is frequently followed by conditioners which increase the ease of combing and styling.
How shampoo works
Shampoo cleans by stripping sebum from the hair. Sebum is an oil secreted by hair follicles that is readily absorbed by the strands of hair, and forms a protective layer. Sebum protects the protein structure of hair from damage, but this protection comes at a cost. It tends to collect dirt, styling products and scalp flakes. Surfactants strip the sebum from the hair shafts and thereby remove the dirt attached to it.
While both soaps and shampoos contain surfactants, soap bonds to oils with such affinity that it removes too much if used on hair. Shampoo uses a different class of surfactants balanced to avoid removing too much oil from the hair.
The chemical mechanisms that underlie hair cleansing are similar to that of traditional soap. Undamaged hair has a hydrophobic surface to which skin lipids such as sebum stick, but water is initially repelled. The lipids do not come off easily when the hair is rinsed with plain water. The anionic surfactants substantially reduce the interfacial surface tension and allow for the removal of the sebum from the hair shaft. The non-polar oily materials on the hair shaft are solubilised into the surfactant micelle structures of the shampoo and are removed during rinsing. There is also considerable removal through a surfactant and oil "roll up" effect.
Preventative action – nutrition to reduce hair fall
As stated earlier, major factors for healthy hair of any type remains both genetics and health. A well understood factor to optimum health is nutrition, and this element remains true for hair health. The living part of hair is under the scalp skin where the hair root is housed in the hair follicle. The entire follicle and root are fed by a vein, and blood carries nutrients to the follicle/root. Any time an individual has any kind of health concern from stress, trauma, medications of various sorts, chronic medical conditions or medical conditions that come and then wane, heavy metals in waters and food, smoking etc. these and more can affect the hair, its growth, and its appearance.
Generally, eating a full diet that contains protein, fruits, vegetables, grains, and even an appropriate amount of fat is important (several vitamins and minerals require fat in order to be delivered or absorbed by the body). Any deficiency will typically show first in the hair, perhaps even before it is diagnosed. For example, even a mild case of anemia can cause shedding and hair loss. Among others, the B group of vitamins are the most important for healthy hair, especially biotin. B5 (Pantothenic Acid) gives hair flexibility, strength and shine and helps prevent hair loss and graying. B6 helps prevent dandruff and can be found in cereals, egg yolk and liver. Vitamin B12 helps prevent the loss of hair and can be found in fish, eggs, chicken and milk.
When the body is under strain, it reprioritizes its processes. For example, the vital organs will be attended to first, meaning that healthy, oxygenated blood may not feed into the hair follicle, resulting in less healthy hair or a decline in growth rate. While not all hair growth issues stem from malnutrition, it is a valuable symptom in diagnosis.
Scalp hair grows, on average, at a rate of about half an inch per month, and shampoos or vitamins have not been shown to noticeably change this rate. Hair growth rate also depends upon what phase in the cycle of hair growth one is actually in; there are three phases. The speed of hair growth varies based upon genetics, gender, age, hormones, and may be reduced by nutrient deficiency (i.e., anorexia, anemia, zinc deficiency) and hormonal fluctuations (i.e., menopause, polycystic ovaries, thyroid disease).
Generally, eating a full diet that contains protein, fruits, vegetables, grains, and even an appropriate amount of fat is important (several vitamins and minerals require fat in order to be delivered or absorbed by the body). Any deficiency will typically show first in the hair, perhaps even before it is diagnosed. For example, even a mild case of anemia can cause shedding and hair loss. Among others, the B group of vitamins are the most important for healthy hair, especially biotin. B5 (Pantothenic Acid) gives hair flexibility, strength and shine and helps prevent hair loss and graying. B6 helps prevent dandruff and can be found in cereals, egg yolk and liver. Vitamin B12 helps prevent the loss of hair and can be found in fish, eggs, chicken and milk.
When the body is under strain, it reprioritizes its processes. For example, the vital organs will be attended to first, meaning that healthy, oxygenated blood may not feed into the hair follicle, resulting in less healthy hair or a decline in growth rate. While not all hair growth issues stem from malnutrition, it is a valuable symptom in diagnosis.
Scalp hair grows, on average, at a rate of about half an inch per month, and shampoos or vitamins have not been shown to noticeably change this rate. Hair growth rate also depends upon what phase in the cycle of hair growth one is actually in; there are three phases. The speed of hair growth varies based upon genetics, gender, age, hormones, and may be reduced by nutrient deficiency (i.e., anorexia, anemia, zinc deficiency) and hormonal fluctuations (i.e., menopause, polycystic ovaries, thyroid disease).
Reasons for hair loss - Hormone changes and imbalances
There are various reasons for hair loss, most commonly hormonal issues. Fluctuations in hormones will often show in the hair. Not all hair loss is related to what is known as male pattern baldness, and indeed, women can suffer from baldness just as men do. This includes women experiencing what's referred to as male pattern baldness. There exist on the markets formulas for addressing this specific cause of lack of hair growth yet typically they require around three months of consistence use for results to begin to appear. Cessation may also mean that gained growth may dissipate.
Particularly among women, thyroid disease is one of the more under-diagnosed health concerns. Hair falling out in clumps is one symptom of a set of symptoms that may indicate a thyroid concern. In many gynecological exams a blood screen for thyroid is now a common protocol. Thyroid often shows up first in the behavior of the hair.
During pregnancy and breast feeding, the normal and natural shedding process is typically suspended (starting around month three because it takes a while for the body to recognize and reset for the hormonal shifts the body goes through) for the period of gestation and extended longer if one breast feeds (this includes pumping for breast milk). Upon cessation of either of these, it typically takes around two months for the hormones to shift again to the normal hormonal settings, and hair shedding can increase exponentially, for approximately 3-6 months until hair returns to its normal volume. It is commonly noticed that hair seems thicker and shinier, even, during pregnancy and breast feeding in response to the influx of shifting hormones. It is not unusual also for hair color to change, or hair structure to change (e.g., straighter hair, curlier hair). These changes can occur more often than people may realize yet isn't often reported.
General hair loss
Some choose to shave their hair off entirely, while still others may have an illness (such as a form of cancer--note that not every form of cancer or cancer treatment necessarily means one will lose their hair) that caused hair loss or lead to a decision to shave the head.
Particularly among women, thyroid disease is one of the more under-diagnosed health concerns. Hair falling out in clumps is one symptom of a set of symptoms that may indicate a thyroid concern. In many gynecological exams a blood screen for thyroid is now a common protocol. Thyroid often shows up first in the behavior of the hair.
During pregnancy and breast feeding, the normal and natural shedding process is typically suspended (starting around month three because it takes a while for the body to recognize and reset for the hormonal shifts the body goes through) for the period of gestation and extended longer if one breast feeds (this includes pumping for breast milk). Upon cessation of either of these, it typically takes around two months for the hormones to shift again to the normal hormonal settings, and hair shedding can increase exponentially, for approximately 3-6 months until hair returns to its normal volume. It is commonly noticed that hair seems thicker and shinier, even, during pregnancy and breast feeding in response to the influx of shifting hormones. It is not unusual also for hair color to change, or hair structure to change (e.g., straighter hair, curlier hair). These changes can occur more often than people may realize yet isn't often reported.
General hair loss
Some choose to shave their hair off entirely, while still others may have an illness (such as a form of cancer--note that not every form of cancer or cancer treatment necessarily means one will lose their hair) that caused hair loss or lead to a decision to shave the head.
Treatment of damaged hair
Split ends
Split ends, known formally as trichoptilosis, happen when the protective cuticle has been stripped away from the ends of hair fibers.
This condition involves a longitudinal splitting of the hair fiber. Any chemical or physical trauma, such as heat, that weathers the hair may eventually lead to split ends. Typically, the damaged hair fiber splits into two or three strands and the split may be two to three centimeters in length. Split ends are most often observed in long hair but also occur in short hair that is not in good condition.
As hair grows, the natural protective oils of the scalp can fail to reach the ends of the hair. The ends are considered old once they reach about 10 centimeters since they have had long exposure to the sun, gone through many shampoos and may have been overheated by hair dryers and hot irons. This all results in dry, brittle ends which are prone to splitting. Infrequent trims and lack of hydrating treatments can intensify this condition.
Breakage and other damage
Hair can be damaged by chemical exposure and at times by excessive perming and straightening.
Infections and skin disorders
When hair behaves in an unusual way, or a scalp skin disorder arises, it is often necessary to visit not only a qualified physician, but sometimes a dermatologist, or a trichologist. Conditions that require this type of professional help include, but are not limited to, forms of alopecia, hair pulling/picking, hair that sticks straight out, black dots on the hair, and rashes or burns resulting from chemical processes.
There are a number of disorders that are particular to the scalp. Symptoms may include:
* bumps,
* lumps,
* chafes,
* weeping or bleeding,
* clumpy flakes that do not easily slough off the scalp skin,
* caking skin buildup that appears white or another color than one's natural skin tone,
* excessive itchiness that doesn't go away with a few hair wash, redness of scalp skin,
* patches of thinning,
* clumps of hair falling out,
* shedding,
* pus-like drainage,
* abnormal odor,
* dandruff
Any of these symptoms may indicate a need for professional assistance from a dermatologist or trichologist for diagnosis.
Scalp skin can suffer from infestations of mites, lice, infections of the follicles or fungus. There could be allergic reactions to ingredients in chemical preparations applied to the hair, even ingredients from shampoo or conditioners. Common concerns surrounding dandruff (often associated with excessive sebum); psoriasis, eczema, or seborrheic dermatitus.
An odor that persists for a few weeks despite regular hair washing may be an indication of a health problem on the scalp skin.
Not all flakes are dandruff. For example, some can merely be product buildup on the scalp skin. This could result from the common practice of applying conditioner to scalp skin without washing. This would dry upon the scalp skin and flake off, appearing like dandruff and even causing itchiness, but have no health effects whatsoever.
Split ends, known formally as trichoptilosis, happen when the protective cuticle has been stripped away from the ends of hair fibers.
This condition involves a longitudinal splitting of the hair fiber. Any chemical or physical trauma, such as heat, that weathers the hair may eventually lead to split ends. Typically, the damaged hair fiber splits into two or three strands and the split may be two to three centimeters in length. Split ends are most often observed in long hair but also occur in short hair that is not in good condition.
As hair grows, the natural protective oils of the scalp can fail to reach the ends of the hair. The ends are considered old once they reach about 10 centimeters since they have had long exposure to the sun, gone through many shampoos and may have been overheated by hair dryers and hot irons. This all results in dry, brittle ends which are prone to splitting. Infrequent trims and lack of hydrating treatments can intensify this condition.
Breakage and other damage
Hair can be damaged by chemical exposure and at times by excessive perming and straightening.
Infections and skin disorders
When hair behaves in an unusual way, or a scalp skin disorder arises, it is often necessary to visit not only a qualified physician, but sometimes a dermatologist, or a trichologist. Conditions that require this type of professional help include, but are not limited to, forms of alopecia, hair pulling/picking, hair that sticks straight out, black dots on the hair, and rashes or burns resulting from chemical processes.
There are a number of disorders that are particular to the scalp. Symptoms may include:
* bumps,
* lumps,
* chafes,
* weeping or bleeding,
* clumpy flakes that do not easily slough off the scalp skin,
* caking skin buildup that appears white or another color than one's natural skin tone,
* excessive itchiness that doesn't go away with a few hair wash, redness of scalp skin,
* patches of thinning,
* clumps of hair falling out,
* shedding,
* pus-like drainage,
* abnormal odor,
* dandruff
Any of these symptoms may indicate a need for professional assistance from a dermatologist or trichologist for diagnosis.
Scalp skin can suffer from infestations of mites, lice, infections of the follicles or fungus. There could be allergic reactions to ingredients in chemical preparations applied to the hair, even ingredients from shampoo or conditioners. Common concerns surrounding dandruff (often associated with excessive sebum); psoriasis, eczema, or seborrheic dermatitus.
An odor that persists for a few weeks despite regular hair washing may be an indication of a health problem on the scalp skin.
Not all flakes are dandruff. For example, some can merely be product buildup on the scalp skin. This could result from the common practice of applying conditioner to scalp skin without washing. This would dry upon the scalp skin and flake off, appearing like dandruff and even causing itchiness, but have no health effects whatsoever.
Special considerations for hair types
Children’s or superfine hair
Children’s hair is often a problem because it is supremely fine and may be difficult to care for because of its nearly downy softness and fluffiness. Up until the age of 7-10, this fine hair will remain about the head.
Children’s hair is different from adult hair in texture, density, and likely also color, body and so on. Hair's traits change over time as humans physically develop, and even age. Like the rest of the human body, (example, teeth), hair has different stages of development spanning the full lifetime from birth to death.
Very curly hair
Very curly hair requires unique care. Hair can be ruined if brushed out dry. There are many different kinds of hair products catering to frizz control and curl definition. Curly hair tends to dry out easily, leave-in conditioner can help. Hair that is very curly often does not require detangling.
Long hair
Many industries have requirements for hair being contained to prevent worker injury. This likely includes those working in food services, construction, utilities, and machine shops of various sorts. Of course, many professions do require containing the hair for reasons of public health, and a prime example is the food industry. Many sports may require similar constraints for reasons of safety to keep hair out of eyes and blocking one's view, and to prevent being caught in sports equipment or trees and shrubs, or matted hair in severe weather conditions or water. This would include not allowing hair to fly loose on the backs of motorcycles and open-topped sports cars for longer tresses.
Delicate skin
Scalp skin of babies and the elderly are similar in subdued sebaceous gland production, due to hormonal levels. The sebaceous gland secretes sebum, a waxy ester, which maintains the acid mantle of the scalp and provides a coating that keeps skin supple and moist. The sebum builds overly, between every 2-3 days for the average adult. Those with delicate skin may experience a longer interval. Teenagers often require daily washing of the hair. Sebum also imparts a protective coating to hair strands. Daily washing will remove the sebum daily and incite an increase in sebum production, because the skin notices the scalp skin is lacking sufficient moisture. In cases of scalp disorders, however, this may not be the case. For babies and elderly, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed however not a bad idea
Children’s hair is often a problem because it is supremely fine and may be difficult to care for because of its nearly downy softness and fluffiness. Up until the age of 7-10, this fine hair will remain about the head.
Children’s hair is different from adult hair in texture, density, and likely also color, body and so on. Hair's traits change over time as humans physically develop, and even age. Like the rest of the human body, (example, teeth), hair has different stages of development spanning the full lifetime from birth to death.
Very curly hair
Very curly hair requires unique care. Hair can be ruined if brushed out dry. There are many different kinds of hair products catering to frizz control and curl definition. Curly hair tends to dry out easily, leave-in conditioner can help. Hair that is very curly often does not require detangling.
Long hair
Many industries have requirements for hair being contained to prevent worker injury. This likely includes those working in food services, construction, utilities, and machine shops of various sorts. Of course, many professions do require containing the hair for reasons of public health, and a prime example is the food industry. Many sports may require similar constraints for reasons of safety to keep hair out of eyes and blocking one's view, and to prevent being caught in sports equipment or trees and shrubs, or matted hair in severe weather conditions or water. This would include not allowing hair to fly loose on the backs of motorcycles and open-topped sports cars for longer tresses.
Delicate skin
Scalp skin of babies and the elderly are similar in subdued sebaceous gland production, due to hormonal levels. The sebaceous gland secretes sebum, a waxy ester, which maintains the acid mantle of the scalp and provides a coating that keeps skin supple and moist. The sebum builds overly, between every 2-3 days for the average adult. Those with delicate skin may experience a longer interval. Teenagers often require daily washing of the hair. Sebum also imparts a protective coating to hair strands. Daily washing will remove the sebum daily and incite an increase in sebum production, because the skin notices the scalp skin is lacking sufficient moisture. In cases of scalp disorders, however, this may not be the case. For babies and elderly, the sebaceous gland production is not at peak, thus daily washing is not typically needed however not a bad idea
Environmental factors affecting hair
Minerals in water can affect hair.
Calcium causes hair to feel dry and lack shine and volume. It can prevent the proper processing of color, highlights, perms or relaxer/straighteners and can cause a perm to appear relaxed. Calcium builds up on the scalp causing flaking of the scalp, giving the appearance of dandruff. Calcium can choke the hair at the mouth of the follicle causing the hair to break off, then coat the scalp, blocking further new hair growth.
Iron can cause water to have a red or rusty hue. Iron leaves hair feeling dry, brittle and weighted down. It causes lack of shine and can cause dark hair to tint darker and blonde hair to turn orange. Iron can inhibit the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners
Copper discolors hair causing blonde hair to turn green and dark hair to tint darker. Copper can weigh hair down and cause dryness, and can inhibit the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners.
Magnesium causes hair to lack shine, feel dry, appear weighted down therefore lacking volume, and can inhibit the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners.
Silica causes many of the same effects on the hair as calcium. It causes hair to feel dry, lack volume, and can cause dandruff-like symptoms of flaking. Build-up of silica can choke the hair follicle causing hair to fall out.
Lead can cause the hair to feel dry. Lead can prevent the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners.
These minerals can be found in well water. Domestic well water is ground water. The source of ground water is rain passing through aquifers, which are layers of minerals. The acidity (pH below 7) of the rain increases the volume of minerals dissolved as the water passes through. The majority of ground (well) water is hard. The level of calcium that is found naturally from the ground determines the hardness of water. While calcium is the element that determines hardness of water, there are many other elements in well water that affect hair, scalp and skin. To improve the hair health and further prevent issues with dryness and buildup, people can use a shower head filter that will remove the minerals found in most city waters. However, hard water minerals and the sanitizing agents like Chlorine and Chloramine can also deposit in or on the hair, building up over time. The chemical and mineral content of water varies by geography. Filtering water through very fine mesh cloth may help to remove larger deposits in the water. Many enjoy collecting rain water, although acid rain is an increasing issue in many parts of the world.
Treatment for well water and hard water conditions are available in a variety of products, such as demineralizing shampoos and conditioners.Those who swim in chlorinated or salt sea water may benefit from first wetting the hair entirely and then applying conditioner to completely swell the entire hair shaft. Swimmers may also benefit from products on the market that remove chlorine after swimming in pool water.
Calcium causes hair to feel dry and lack shine and volume. It can prevent the proper processing of color, highlights, perms or relaxer/straighteners and can cause a perm to appear relaxed. Calcium builds up on the scalp causing flaking of the scalp, giving the appearance of dandruff. Calcium can choke the hair at the mouth of the follicle causing the hair to break off, then coat the scalp, blocking further new hair growth.
Iron can cause water to have a red or rusty hue. Iron leaves hair feeling dry, brittle and weighted down. It causes lack of shine and can cause dark hair to tint darker and blonde hair to turn orange. Iron can inhibit the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners
Copper discolors hair causing blonde hair to turn green and dark hair to tint darker. Copper can weigh hair down and cause dryness, and can inhibit the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners.
Magnesium causes hair to lack shine, feel dry, appear weighted down therefore lacking volume, and can inhibit the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners.
Silica causes many of the same effects on the hair as calcium. It causes hair to feel dry, lack volume, and can cause dandruff-like symptoms of flaking. Build-up of silica can choke the hair follicle causing hair to fall out.
Lead can cause the hair to feel dry. Lead can prevent the proper processing of perms, color, highlights, and relaxers/straighteners.
These minerals can be found in well water. Domestic well water is ground water. The source of ground water is rain passing through aquifers, which are layers of minerals. The acidity (pH below 7) of the rain increases the volume of minerals dissolved as the water passes through. The majority of ground (well) water is hard. The level of calcium that is found naturally from the ground determines the hardness of water. While calcium is the element that determines hardness of water, there are many other elements in well water that affect hair, scalp and skin. To improve the hair health and further prevent issues with dryness and buildup, people can use a shower head filter that will remove the minerals found in most city waters. However, hard water minerals and the sanitizing agents like Chlorine and Chloramine can also deposit in or on the hair, building up over time. The chemical and mineral content of water varies by geography. Filtering water through very fine mesh cloth may help to remove larger deposits in the water. Many enjoy collecting rain water, although acid rain is an increasing issue in many parts of the world.
Treatment for well water and hard water conditions are available in a variety of products, such as demineralizing shampoos and conditioners.Those who swim in chlorinated or salt sea water may benefit from first wetting the hair entirely and then applying conditioner to completely swell the entire hair shaft. Swimmers may also benefit from products on the market that remove chlorine after swimming in pool water.
Chemical alteration of hair
Chemical alterations like perming, coloring can be carried out to change the perceived quality and texture of hair. Most of these are temporary alterations, however, permanent alterations are also possible.
Chemical alteration of hair only affects the hair above the scalp; unless the hair roots are damaged, new hair will grow in with natural color and texture.
Hair coloring
Hair coloring is the process of adding pigment to or removing pigment from the hair shaft. Hair coloring processes may be referred to as dyeing or bleaching, depending on whether you are adding or removing pigment.
Temporary hair tints simply coat the shaft with pigments which later wash off.
Most permanent color changes require that the cuticle of the hair be opened so the color change can take place within the cuticle. This process, which uses chemicals to alter the structure of the hair, can damage the cuticle or internal structure of the hair, leaving it dry, weak, or prone to breakage. After the hair processing, the cuticle may not fully close, which results in coarse hair or an accelerated loss of pigment. Generally, the lighter the chosen colour from one's initial hair color, the more damaged it may be. Other options for applying color to hair besides chemical dyes include the use of such herbs as henna and indigo, or choosing ammonia-free solutions.
Perms and chemical straightening
Perms and relaxation using relaxer or thermal reconditioning involve chemical alteration of the internal structure of the hair in order to affect its curliness or straightness. Hair that has been subjected to the use of a permanent is weaker due to the application of chemicals, and should be treated gently and with greater care than hair that isn't chemically altered.
Chemical alteration of hair only affects the hair above the scalp; unless the hair roots are damaged, new hair will grow in with natural color and texture.
Hair coloring
Hair coloring is the process of adding pigment to or removing pigment from the hair shaft. Hair coloring processes may be referred to as dyeing or bleaching, depending on whether you are adding or removing pigment.
Temporary hair tints simply coat the shaft with pigments which later wash off.
Most permanent color changes require that the cuticle of the hair be opened so the color change can take place within the cuticle. This process, which uses chemicals to alter the structure of the hair, can damage the cuticle or internal structure of the hair, leaving it dry, weak, or prone to breakage. After the hair processing, the cuticle may not fully close, which results in coarse hair or an accelerated loss of pigment. Generally, the lighter the chosen colour from one's initial hair color, the more damaged it may be. Other options for applying color to hair besides chemical dyes include the use of such herbs as henna and indigo, or choosing ammonia-free solutions.
Perms and chemical straightening
Perms and relaxation using relaxer or thermal reconditioning involve chemical alteration of the internal structure of the hair in order to affect its curliness or straightness. Hair that has been subjected to the use of a permanent is weaker due to the application of chemicals, and should be treated gently and with greater care than hair that isn't chemically altered.
Western hair cleaning products and methods
A more alkaline rated (meaning a high pH) shampoo is stronger and harsher to one's hair. This can mean that the hair will be left dry and brittle. Shampoos containing citric, lactic or phosphoric acid are most likely balanced. Oily hair might require a more acidic pH shampoo. Anti dandruff shampoos have been implicated in irritation of the scalp, and an increase in the production of dandruff. Anti dandruff shampoos may be available Over the counter or on prescription, based on the strength of the medicine. Dandruff, despite common belief, is more often related to too much, or an issue somehow with, sebum production and not dry scalp skin. Not all flakes are dandruff and only a qualified physician can determine not only that one indeed does have dandruff; but also, what type of dandruff one may have. If one is experiencing redness of the scalp skin, bumps on the scalp skin, and any weeping from sores and/or bleeding in addition to flakes, professional medical diagnosis should be sought.
Conditioner choice is greatly dependent upon hair type and hair status, such as colored, permed, dry, and the like. Commercial conditioners contain a variety of ingredients such as plant oils, pro-vitamins, acidic compounds, plastics, stabilizers, thickeners, emulsifiers, and fragrances.
Conditioners may sometimes add weight to hair, creating an adverse effect in the shampooing/conditioning process. Some conditioners, especially those containing a silicone compound, may coat the hair and lead to build up on the hair, making it dull, and lead to harsher shampoo use; in a sense, an endless cycle of shampooing and conditioning. When used correctly, however, conditioners are helpful in temporarily coating the hair to increase shine and ease tangles.
Buildup is when the hair has a sticky or gummy feel, the conditioner choice seems to work less well, or the hair may be more prone to tangling. Buildup occurs when the minerals from water and/or products are not rinsed away during shampooing. A clarifying shampoo may be required to remove it. Clarifying removes all things on the surface of the hair strands, essentially leaving the hair without moisture. Failure of conditioning as part of a clarifying hair wash process may lead to excessive drying of hair.
Viable natural ways to condition the hair include rinses with lemon juice, lime juice, or vinegar. The use of acid rinses may assist those who have itchy scalps, depending on the cause for the itchiness. Hair which is lacking sebum may also be softened using plant oils such as olive oil and coconut oil.
Conditioner choice is greatly dependent upon hair type and hair status, such as colored, permed, dry, and the like. Commercial conditioners contain a variety of ingredients such as plant oils, pro-vitamins, acidic compounds, plastics, stabilizers, thickeners, emulsifiers, and fragrances.
Conditioners may sometimes add weight to hair, creating an adverse effect in the shampooing/conditioning process. Some conditioners, especially those containing a silicone compound, may coat the hair and lead to build up on the hair, making it dull, and lead to harsher shampoo use; in a sense, an endless cycle of shampooing and conditioning. When used correctly, however, conditioners are helpful in temporarily coating the hair to increase shine and ease tangles.
Buildup is when the hair has a sticky or gummy feel, the conditioner choice seems to work less well, or the hair may be more prone to tangling. Buildup occurs when the minerals from water and/or products are not rinsed away during shampooing. A clarifying shampoo may be required to remove it. Clarifying removes all things on the surface of the hair strands, essentially leaving the hair without moisture. Failure of conditioning as part of a clarifying hair wash process may lead to excessive drying of hair.
Viable natural ways to condition the hair include rinses with lemon juice, lime juice, or vinegar. The use of acid rinses may assist those who have itchy scalps, depending on the cause for the itchiness. Hair which is lacking sebum may also be softened using plant oils such as olive oil and coconut oil.
Hair cleaning
To combat this appearance of “dirty” hair, and to remove actual dirt and other contaminants and external substances like sweat, the hair may be washed. Often hair is washed as part of a shower or bathing with a specialized soap called shampoo. Those with damaged or curly hair, or sensitive scalps, may benefit from cleansing with a light Hair conditioner, instead. However, this requires that only water-soluble products are applied to the hair and scalp.
Shampoo is helped by warm temperature water, which helps open the cuticle of the hair and release any oils or other substances beneath. Pure water has a pH of 7, and when shampoo has removed the slightly acidic sebum from the hair, the pH on the surface of the scalp is raised. Freshly shampooed hair can feel tangled or rough, and hair which is left to dry after a shampoo only can be excessively dry and coarse. To smooth the hair, Conditioner is often used. Conditioners may employ ingredients of an acidic nature to balance the hair and scalp pH. Many modern conditioners also contain plant oils or synthetic ingredients such as plastics to coat the hair shaft and smooth it out. Acidic rinses or chemical conditioners can help with hair detangling and manageability, which helps prevent damage.
The sebaceous glands increase or reduce their secretions in order to maintain proper skin protection and pH. When the skin is regularly stripped of its natural sebum, the sebaceous glands respond with an overproduction. People observe that they “must” wash their hair, for example, once every other day, otherwise their hair becomes oily; however, their sebaceous glands have simply adapted to their hygienic cycle. Changes to the hygienic cycle result in changes to sebum secretion.
More Modern shampoos and conditioners are not necessary to maintain clean and healthy hair, and indeed, many cultures do not have these products at all. Different methods are available for those people who wish to return to this “natural” hair state, where healthy hair can be maintained with scalp massage, water-only washes, or using cleaning agents very rarely. Natural baseline sebum secretion varies by individual, and returning the scalp to this state takes time. This process may often include using cleaning agents, but is generally geared towards leaving the sebum on the scalp and hair for as long as possible to reacclimatize the scalp to producing less sebum. This process may not be for everyone, as some who try this method never reach a point where they feel their hair can be clean for any extended period of time without washing with conventional shampoo.
Using cold water as a final rinse can help close the scales of the cuticle, and can help constrict the openings of the sebaceous glands to help moderate sebum production.
Shampoo is helped by warm temperature water, which helps open the cuticle of the hair and release any oils or other substances beneath. Pure water has a pH of 7, and when shampoo has removed the slightly acidic sebum from the hair, the pH on the surface of the scalp is raised. Freshly shampooed hair can feel tangled or rough, and hair which is left to dry after a shampoo only can be excessively dry and coarse. To smooth the hair, Conditioner is often used. Conditioners may employ ingredients of an acidic nature to balance the hair and scalp pH. Many modern conditioners also contain plant oils or synthetic ingredients such as plastics to coat the hair shaft and smooth it out. Acidic rinses or chemical conditioners can help with hair detangling and manageability, which helps prevent damage.
The sebaceous glands increase or reduce their secretions in order to maintain proper skin protection and pH. When the skin is regularly stripped of its natural sebum, the sebaceous glands respond with an overproduction. People observe that they “must” wash their hair, for example, once every other day, otherwise their hair becomes oily; however, their sebaceous glands have simply adapted to their hygienic cycle. Changes to the hygienic cycle result in changes to sebum secretion.
More Modern shampoos and conditioners are not necessary to maintain clean and healthy hair, and indeed, many cultures do not have these products at all. Different methods are available for those people who wish to return to this “natural” hair state, where healthy hair can be maintained with scalp massage, water-only washes, or using cleaning agents very rarely. Natural baseline sebum secretion varies by individual, and returning the scalp to this state takes time. This process may often include using cleaning agents, but is generally geared towards leaving the sebum on the scalp and hair for as long as possible to reacclimatize the scalp to producing less sebum. This process may not be for everyone, as some who try this method never reach a point where they feel their hair can be clean for any extended period of time without washing with conventional shampoo.
Using cold water as a final rinse can help close the scales of the cuticle, and can help constrict the openings of the sebaceous glands to help moderate sebum production.
Hair care
Hair care is an overall term for parts of hygiene and cosmetology involving the hair on the human head. Hair care will differ according to one's hair type and according to various processes that can be applied to hair. All hair is not the same; indeed, hair is a manifestation of human diversity.
In this article, 'Hair care' is taken to mean care of hair on the human head, but mention should be made of process and services which impact hair on other parts of the body. This includes men‘s and women’s facial, pubic, and other body hair, which may be dyed, trimmed, shaved, plucked, or otherwise removed with treatments such as waxing, sugaring, and threading. These services are offered in salons, barber shops, and day spas, and products are available commercially for home use. Laser hair removal and electrolysis are also available, though these are provided (in the US) by licensed professionals in medical offices or specialty spas.
Hair cleaning and conditioning
Biological processes and hygiene
Care of the hair and care of the scalp skin may appear separate, but are actually intertwined because hair grows from beneath the skin. The living parts of hair (hair follicle, hair root, root sheath, and sebaceous gland) are beneath the skin, while the actual hair shaft which emerges (the cuticle which covers the cortex and medulla) has no living processes. Damage or changes made to the visible hair shaft cannot be repaired by a biological process, though much can be done to manage hair and ensure that the cuticle remains intact. (For more information on the biological processes involved in hair production, see Hair.)
Scalp skin, just as any other skin on the body, must be kept healthy to ensure a healthy body and healthy hair production. If the scalp is not cleaned regularly, by the removal of dead skin cells, toxins released through the skin or external hazards (such as bacteria, viruses, and chemicals) may create a breeding ground for infection. However, not all scalp disorders are a result of bacterial infections. Some arise inexplicably, and often only the symptoms can be treated for management of the condition (example: dandruff). There are also bacteria that can affect the hair itself, but in MEDC's (More Economically Developed Countries), this is much rarer. Head lice is probably the most common hair and scalp ailment world-wide. Head lice can be removed with great attention to detail, and studies show it is not necessarily associated with poor hygiene. (Indeed, even well-to-do households can experience head lice. More recent studies reveal that head lice actually thrive in clean hair.) In this way, hair washing as a term may be a bit misleading, as what is necessary in healthy hair production and maintenance is often simply cleaning the surface of the scalp skin, the way the skin all over the body requires cleaning for good hygiene.
The sebaceous glands in human skin produce sebum, which is composed primarily of fatty acids. Sebum acts to protect hair and skin, and can inhibit the growth of microorganisms on the skin. Sebum contributes to the skin’s slightly acidic natural pH somewhere between 5 and 6.8 on the pH spectrum. This oily substance gives hair moisture and shine as it travels naturally down the hair shaft, and serves as a protective substance preventing the hair from drying out or absorbing excessive amounts of external substances. Sebum is also distributed down the hair shaft “mechanically” by brushing and combing. When sebum is present in excess, the roots of the hair can appear oily, greasy, generally darker than normal, and the hair may stick together.
In this article, 'Hair care' is taken to mean care of hair on the human head, but mention should be made of process and services which impact hair on other parts of the body. This includes men‘s and women’s facial, pubic, and other body hair, which may be dyed, trimmed, shaved, plucked, or otherwise removed with treatments such as waxing, sugaring, and threading. These services are offered in salons, barber shops, and day spas, and products are available commercially for home use. Laser hair removal and electrolysis are also available, though these are provided (in the US) by licensed professionals in medical offices or specialty spas.
Hair cleaning and conditioning
Biological processes and hygiene
Care of the hair and care of the scalp skin may appear separate, but are actually intertwined because hair grows from beneath the skin. The living parts of hair (hair follicle, hair root, root sheath, and sebaceous gland) are beneath the skin, while the actual hair shaft which emerges (the cuticle which covers the cortex and medulla) has no living processes. Damage or changes made to the visible hair shaft cannot be repaired by a biological process, though much can be done to manage hair and ensure that the cuticle remains intact. (For more information on the biological processes involved in hair production, see Hair.)
Scalp skin, just as any other skin on the body, must be kept healthy to ensure a healthy body and healthy hair production. If the scalp is not cleaned regularly, by the removal of dead skin cells, toxins released through the skin or external hazards (such as bacteria, viruses, and chemicals) may create a breeding ground for infection. However, not all scalp disorders are a result of bacterial infections. Some arise inexplicably, and often only the symptoms can be treated for management of the condition (example: dandruff). There are also bacteria that can affect the hair itself, but in MEDC's (More Economically Developed Countries), this is much rarer. Head lice is probably the most common hair and scalp ailment world-wide. Head lice can be removed with great attention to detail, and studies show it is not necessarily associated with poor hygiene. (Indeed, even well-to-do households can experience head lice. More recent studies reveal that head lice actually thrive in clean hair.) In this way, hair washing as a term may be a bit misleading, as what is necessary in healthy hair production and maintenance is often simply cleaning the surface of the scalp skin, the way the skin all over the body requires cleaning for good hygiene.
The sebaceous glands in human skin produce sebum, which is composed primarily of fatty acids. Sebum acts to protect hair and skin, and can inhibit the growth of microorganisms on the skin. Sebum contributes to the skin’s slightly acidic natural pH somewhere between 5 and 6.8 on the pH spectrum. This oily substance gives hair moisture and shine as it travels naturally down the hair shaft, and serves as a protective substance preventing the hair from drying out or absorbing excessive amounts of external substances. Sebum is also distributed down the hair shaft “mechanically” by brushing and combing. When sebum is present in excess, the roots of the hair can appear oily, greasy, generally darker than normal, and the hair may stick together.
Global Hunger Index
Hunger has many faces: increased susceptibility to disease, shortfalls in nutritional status, loss of energy, disability, and death due to starvation or infectious diseases whose lethal course is the result of weakened general health. At the national level, interactions between economic development, technology, policy, culture, ecological factors and the availability of natural resources are crucial.
These factors influence households and communities in terms of food availability, basic education and knowledge, caring capacity for children, old people, and the sick, and the general health environment. Shortfalls in these areas can rapidly push individuals into a vicious cycle of insufficient dietary intake, weight loss, a weakened immune system, and infections accompanied by loss of appetite and energy-consuming fever.
The GHI is designed to capture several dimensions of hunger and undernutrition. They include: insufficient food availability (as compared to requirements), shortfalls in nutritional status, and deaths that are directly or indirectly attributable to undernutrition. This definition goes beyond insufficient dietary energy availability at the household level, which is the focus of the FAO measure of undernourishment. Sufficient dietary energy availability at the household level does not mean that all individual household members benefit equally. Nor does it guarantee that small children will be fed food that is adequate for their age or that sick familiy members are able to biologically utilize the available food. The Global Hunger Index is therefore based on a three-dimensional definition which encompasses the outcomes of insufficient quantity, quality or safety of food as well as the consequences of a failure to utilize nutrients biologically.
The combination of the proportion of the undernourished in the entire population with the two indicators relating to children under five ensures that both the food supply of the entire population and the effects of inadequte nutrition on a physiologically vulnerable group are captured. Children´s nutritional status is of particular importance because nutritional deficiencies put them at high risk of physical and/or mental impairment and mortality. For many children in developing countries who die from infectious diseases, the indirect cause of death is a weakened immune system due to lack of dietary energy, vitamins and minerals. Because the first two indicators - the proportion of undernourished and the prevalence of underweight children - do not reveal premature death as the most tragic consequence of hunger, the child mortality rate is also included.
These factors influence households and communities in terms of food availability, basic education and knowledge, caring capacity for children, old people, and the sick, and the general health environment. Shortfalls in these areas can rapidly push individuals into a vicious cycle of insufficient dietary intake, weight loss, a weakened immune system, and infections accompanied by loss of appetite and energy-consuming fever.
The GHI is designed to capture several dimensions of hunger and undernutrition. They include: insufficient food availability (as compared to requirements), shortfalls in nutritional status, and deaths that are directly or indirectly attributable to undernutrition. This definition goes beyond insufficient dietary energy availability at the household level, which is the focus of the FAO measure of undernourishment. Sufficient dietary energy availability at the household level does not mean that all individual household members benefit equally. Nor does it guarantee that small children will be fed food that is adequate for their age or that sick familiy members are able to biologically utilize the available food. The Global Hunger Index is therefore based on a three-dimensional definition which encompasses the outcomes of insufficient quantity, quality or safety of food as well as the consequences of a failure to utilize nutrients biologically.
The combination of the proportion of the undernourished in the entire population with the two indicators relating to children under five ensures that both the food supply of the entire population and the effects of inadequte nutrition on a physiologically vulnerable group are captured. Children´s nutritional status is of particular importance because nutritional deficiencies put them at high risk of physical and/or mental impairment and mortality. For many children in developing countries who die from infectious diseases, the indirect cause of death is a weakened immune system due to lack of dietary energy, vitamins and minerals. Because the first two indicators - the proportion of undernourished and the prevalence of underweight children - do not reveal premature death as the most tragic consequence of hunger, the child mortality rate is also included.
Starvation for political reasons
A son and a daughter of Agrippina were also executed by starvation for political reasons; Drusus Caesar, her second son, was put in prison in 33 and starved to death on the orders of Tiberius (he managed to stay alive for nine days by chewing the stuffing of his bed); Agrippina's youngest daughter, called Julia Livilla, was exiled on an island in 41 by her uncle, the emperor Claudius, and not much later, her death by starvation was arranged by the empress Messalina.
Execution by starvation was also a possible punishment for Vestal Virgins found guilty of breaking their vows.
Maximilian Kolbe, a Polish friar, offered his life to save another inmate sentenced to death in the Auschwitz concentration camp. He was starved along with another nine inmates. After two weeks of starvation he and three other inmates were still alive and executed with injections of phenol.
Ugolino della Gherardesca, his sons and other members of his family were immured in the Muda, a tower of Pisa, and starved to death in the thirteenth century. Dante, his contemporary, wrote about Gherardesca in his masterpiece The Divine Comedy.
In Sweden in 1317, the king Birger of Sweden had his two brothers locked up in the prison. They died a few weeks later because of starvation; their sentence was a punishment for a coup they staged several years earlier. This was called the Nyköping Banquet.
In Cornwall in 1671, there is a recorded case of a man by the name of John Trehenban from St Columb Major who was condemned to be starved to death in a cage at Castle An Dinas for the murder of two girls.
Execution by starvation was also a possible punishment for Vestal Virgins found guilty of breaking their vows.
Maximilian Kolbe, a Polish friar, offered his life to save another inmate sentenced to death in the Auschwitz concentration camp. He was starved along with another nine inmates. After two weeks of starvation he and three other inmates were still alive and executed with injections of phenol.
Ugolino della Gherardesca, his sons and other members of his family were immured in the Muda, a tower of Pisa, and starved to death in the thirteenth century. Dante, his contemporary, wrote about Gherardesca in his masterpiece The Divine Comedy.
In Sweden in 1317, the king Birger of Sweden had his two brothers locked up in the prison. They died a few weeks later because of starvation; their sentence was a punishment for a coup they staged several years earlier. This was called the Nyköping Banquet.
In Cornwall in 1671, there is a recorded case of a man by the name of John Trehenban from St Columb Major who was condemned to be starved to death in a cage at Castle An Dinas for the murder of two girls.
Biochemistry of starvation
Biochemistry
The glycogen storage is used up and the level of insulin in the circulation is low and the level of glucagon is very high. The main means of energy production is lipolysis. The TCA cycle helps the gluconeogenesis convert glycerol and fatty acids the acetyl CoA produces the energy used. Two systems of energy enter the gluconeogenesis, proteolysis provides alanine and lactate produced from pyruvate. Too much Acetyl CoA produces Ketone bodies, which can be detected in an urine exam. The brain starts to use Ketone bodies as a source of energy.
In terms of insulin resistance, starvation conditions makes more glucose available to the brain.
Efforts
Treatment
Starving patients can be treated, but this must be done cautiously to avoid refeeding syndrome.
Prevention
Supporting farmers in areas of food insecurity, through such measures as free or subsidized fertilizers and seeds, increases food harvest and reduces food prices. For example, in Malawi, almost five million of its 13 million people needed emergency food aid. Then, however, deep fertilizer subsidies and lesser ones for seed, abetted by good rains, helped farmers produce record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007, according to government crop estimates. Corn production leapt to 2.7 million metric tons in 2006 and 3.4 million in 2007 from 1.2 million in 2005, the government reported.
The harvest also helped the poor by lowering food prices and increasing wages for farm workers. Malawi became a major food exporter, selling more corn to the World Food Program and the United Nations than any other country in Southern Africa. Over the 20 years prior to this change in policy by the World Bank and some rich nations Malawi depended on for aid have periodically pressed it to cut back or eliminate fertilizer subsidies, in the name of free market policies even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers.
However, many, if not most, of its farmers are too poor to afford fertilizer at market prices. Proponents for helping the farmers includes the economist Jeffrey Sachs, who has championed the idea that wealthy countries should invest in fertilizer and seed for Africa’s farmers. He also conceived the Millennium Villages Project (MVP), which good seeds, fertilizers, and trains farmers how to use them. In a Kenyan village, where this was experimented, the project resulted in a tripling of its corn harvest, even though the village had previously had a cycle of hunger.
The glycogen storage is used up and the level of insulin in the circulation is low and the level of glucagon is very high. The main means of energy production is lipolysis. The TCA cycle helps the gluconeogenesis convert glycerol and fatty acids the acetyl CoA produces the energy used. Two systems of energy enter the gluconeogenesis, proteolysis provides alanine and lactate produced from pyruvate. Too much Acetyl CoA produces Ketone bodies, which can be detected in an urine exam. The brain starts to use Ketone bodies as a source of energy.
In terms of insulin resistance, starvation conditions makes more glucose available to the brain.
Efforts
Treatment
Starving patients can be treated, but this must be done cautiously to avoid refeeding syndrome.
Prevention
Supporting farmers in areas of food insecurity, through such measures as free or subsidized fertilizers and seeds, increases food harvest and reduces food prices. For example, in Malawi, almost five million of its 13 million people needed emergency food aid. Then, however, deep fertilizer subsidies and lesser ones for seed, abetted by good rains, helped farmers produce record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007, according to government crop estimates. Corn production leapt to 2.7 million metric tons in 2006 and 3.4 million in 2007 from 1.2 million in 2005, the government reported.
The harvest also helped the poor by lowering food prices and increasing wages for farm workers. Malawi became a major food exporter, selling more corn to the World Food Program and the United Nations than any other country in Southern Africa. Over the 20 years prior to this change in policy by the World Bank and some rich nations Malawi depended on for aid have periodically pressed it to cut back or eliminate fertilizer subsidies, in the name of free market policies even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers.
However, many, if not most, of its farmers are too poor to afford fertilizer at market prices. Proponents for helping the farmers includes the economist Jeffrey Sachs, who has championed the idea that wealthy countries should invest in fertilizer and seed for Africa’s farmers. He also conceived the Millennium Villages Project (MVP), which good seeds, fertilizers, and trains farmers how to use them. In a Kenyan village, where this was experimented, the project resulted in a tripling of its corn harvest, even though the village had previously had a cycle of hunger.
Psychological effects of starvation
Through several reports and studies, scientists have discovered that starvation has many psychological effects on a person, in addition to its physiological effects. The most extensive and informative study on starvation's psychological effects is called the Minnesota Starvation-Rehabilitation Experiment, which was carried out from 1944-1946. The subjects of this experiment were thirty-two fully informed volunteers, ages twenty to thirty-three.
Subjects experienced three phases of the experiment: twelve weeks of control period, twenty four weeks of semistarvation, and then twelve weeks of rehabilitation. During the control experiments the subjects were given 3,492 calories, during the period of semistarvation the calories were decreased to 1,570, and during the period of rehabilitation they were re-increased to normal levels. During the period of semistarvation, subjects were fed foods most likely consumed in European famine areas. The results of the starvation experiment were tested in many ways.
According to Josef Brozek, author of Psychology of Human Starvation and Nutritional Rehabilitation, studies "ranged from intelligence and personality tests through ratings to purely descriptive material, provided by the experimenters' notes and diaries kept by the subjects". According to subjects of the semistarvation experiment, tiredness was the worst effect of the low calorie intake, followed by appetite, muscle soreness, irritability, apathy, sensitivity to noise, and hunger pain. Standard personality tests revealed that the starving individuals experienced a large rise in the "neurotic triad" -- hypochondriasis, depression, and hysteria. Also, the subjects of the experiment noticed a marked decrease in the drive for activity, and a remarkable decrease in sex drive.
In peer evaluations, other experiment subjects noted great changes in subjects' personalities during the period of semistarvation.; In interviews years later, subjects reported that they felt that they had not returned to normal by the end of the three month recovery period. Subjects' own estimates of the time it took for recovery ranged from two months to two years. Many subjects reported that they grossly overate and put on fat after the experiment due to the urge to eat.
149 Biochemistry
Subjects experienced three phases of the experiment: twelve weeks of control period, twenty four weeks of semistarvation, and then twelve weeks of rehabilitation. During the control experiments the subjects were given 3,492 calories, during the period of semistarvation the calories were decreased to 1,570, and during the period of rehabilitation they were re-increased to normal levels. During the period of semistarvation, subjects were fed foods most likely consumed in European famine areas. The results of the starvation experiment were tested in many ways.
According to Josef Brozek, author of Psychology of Human Starvation and Nutritional Rehabilitation, studies "ranged from intelligence and personality tests through ratings to purely descriptive material, provided by the experimenters' notes and diaries kept by the subjects". According to subjects of the semistarvation experiment, tiredness was the worst effect of the low calorie intake, followed by appetite, muscle soreness, irritability, apathy, sensitivity to noise, and hunger pain. Standard personality tests revealed that the starving individuals experienced a large rise in the "neurotic triad" -- hypochondriasis, depression, and hysteria. Also, the subjects of the experiment noticed a marked decrease in the drive for activity, and a remarkable decrease in sex drive.
In peer evaluations, other experiment subjects noted great changes in subjects' personalities during the period of semistarvation.; In interviews years later, subjects reported that they felt that they had not returned to normal by the end of the three month recovery period. Subjects' own estimates of the time it took for recovery ranged from two months to two years. Many subjects reported that they grossly overate and put on fat after the experiment due to the urge to eat.
149 Biochemistry
Signs and symptoms of starvation
Individuals experiencing starvation lose substantial fat (adipose) and muscle mass as the body breaks down these tissues for energy. Catabolysis is the process (medical condition) of a body breaking down muscles and other tissues in order to keep vital systems working – vital systems such as the nervous system and heart muscle (myocardium).
Catabolysis will not begin until there are no usable sources of energy coming into the body. Vitamin deficiency is also a common result of starvation, often resulting in anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively may cause diarrhoea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.
Atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach weakens the perception of hunger, since the perception is controlled by the percentage of the stomach that is empty. Victims of starvation are often too weak to sense thirst, and therefore become dehydrated.
All movements become painful due to atrophy of the muscles, and due to dry, cracked skin caused by severe dehydration. With a weakened body, diseases are commonplace. Fungi, for example, often grows under the esophagus, making swallowing unbearably painful.
The energy deficiency inherent in starvation causes fatigue and renders the victim more apathetic over time. Interaction with one's surroundings diminishes as the starving person becomes too weak to move or even eat.
Catabolysis will not begin until there are no usable sources of energy coming into the body. Vitamin deficiency is also a common result of starvation, often resulting in anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively may cause diarrhoea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.
Atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach weakens the perception of hunger, since the perception is controlled by the percentage of the stomach that is empty. Victims of starvation are often too weak to sense thirst, and therefore become dehydrated.
All movements become painful due to atrophy of the muscles, and due to dry, cracked skin caused by severe dehydration. With a weakened body, diseases are commonplace. Fungi, for example, often grows under the esophagus, making swallowing unbearably painful.
The energy deficiency inherent in starvation causes fatigue and renders the victim more apathetic over time. Interaction with one's surroundings diminishes as the starving person becomes too weak to move or even eat.
Starvation
Starvation is a severe reduction in vitamin, nutrient, and energy intake, and is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation (in excess of 1-2 months) causes permanent organ damage and, eventually, death. The term inanition refers to the symptoms and effects of starvation.
According to the World Health Organization, hunger is the gravest single threat to the world's public health. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, more than 25,000 people died of starvation every day in 2003, and as of 2001 to 2003, about 800 million humans were chronically undernourished. The WHO also states that malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Scientists say millions of people face starvation following an outbreak of a deadly new strain of blight, known as Ug99, which is spreading across the wheat fields of Africa and Asia.
Common causes
The basic cause of starvation is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure; in starvation, more energy is spent than is taken in as food. This imbalance can arise in many situations, some of which include:
• Anorexia nervosa
• Bulimia nervosa
• Depression
• Coma
• Diabetes mellitus
• Digestive disease
• Famine
• Fasting
• Malnutrition
• Overpopulation
• Poverty
• War
According to the World Health Organization, hunger is the gravest single threat to the world's public health. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, more than 25,000 people died of starvation every day in 2003, and as of 2001 to 2003, about 800 million humans were chronically undernourished. The WHO also states that malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Scientists say millions of people face starvation following an outbreak of a deadly new strain of blight, known as Ug99, which is spreading across the wheat fields of Africa and Asia.
Common causes
The basic cause of starvation is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure; in starvation, more energy is spent than is taken in as food. This imbalance can arise in many situations, some of which include:
• Anorexia nervosa
• Bulimia nervosa
• Depression
• Coma
• Diabetes mellitus
• Digestive disease
• Famine
• Fasting
• Malnutrition
• Overpopulation
• Poverty
• War
Economic Factors of poverty
Many developing countries face tremendous external debt that creates or exacerbates hunger crises. This debt is largely the result of international trade imbalances and mainly affects developing countries in Latin American, Africa, and Asia. Governments must often decide between feeding people and paying off external debt; pressure and threats from lenders often results in persistent hunger and poverty. The disproportionate competition between small family farmers and powerful agribusinesses is an increasingly common cause of hunger and poverty.
Many farmers in developing countries produce cash crops like coffee, cocoa, sugar and cotton for export in order to support their families. However, big agribusinesses are able to shut out any competition from small farmers by buying up the best land, cutting deals with other corporations and governments, and driving prices down so low that small farmers cannot make a living. This is best exemplified by the current coffee crises in Latin America, Asia and Africa, where 25 million farmers are facing economic disaster due to falling coffee prices.
The influence of multinational corporations and other special interests is connected to poverty and hunger in many venues beyond military construction and agriculture. As a result of policies like the North American Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), multinational corporations now have more leeway than ever to hire workers at slave wages and pressure foreign governments for favorable treatment at the expense of the public.
In addition, the influence of special interests over foreign aid from countries like the United States negatively affects poor communities; for example, a large amount of U.S. aid goes to fund large infrastructure projects that are often built by U.S. companies and whose profits benefit U.S. shareholders rather than local communities.
Many farmers in developing countries produce cash crops like coffee, cocoa, sugar and cotton for export in order to support their families. However, big agribusinesses are able to shut out any competition from small farmers by buying up the best land, cutting deals with other corporations and governments, and driving prices down so low that small farmers cannot make a living. This is best exemplified by the current coffee crises in Latin America, Asia and Africa, where 25 million farmers are facing economic disaster due to falling coffee prices.
The influence of multinational corporations and other special interests is connected to poverty and hunger in many venues beyond military construction and agriculture. As a result of policies like the North American Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), multinational corporations now have more leeway than ever to hire workers at slave wages and pressure foreign governments for favorable treatment at the expense of the public.
In addition, the influence of special interests over foreign aid from countries like the United States negatively affects poor communities; for example, a large amount of U.S. aid goes to fund large infrastructure projects that are often built by U.S. companies and whose profits benefit U.S. shareholders rather than local communities.
Political Factors & Environmental Factors of poverty
Political Factors
War is a primary cause of hunger. By following a map of recent wars in developing countries, one can accurately map famine and malnutrition. Conflict destroys crops and takes labor and other resources out of food production; in addition, food may be used as a political weapon during times of conflict.
The primacy many governments place on military spending is connected to hunger. A disproportionate amount of government money goes to military purposes as opposed to agriculture, education, fishing and preservation of natural resources. Many countries make decisions based upon political considerations, often at the behest of more powerful nations. For instance, more than half of U.S. foreign assistance is "security aid" going to military and political allies.
Environmental Factors
Land degradation and the deforestation of lands, often by big businesses, are a cause of hunger. As lands are clear-cut for cattle ranching or farms, they are left unprotected from wind and water erosion. In addition, economic pressures force many farmers to adopt farming practices which meet short-term needs but cause long-term damage to the environment.
This results in unsustainable farming techniques that often ruin land for future use. This results is land that produces fewer or no crops and is more vulnerable to erosion in the event of drought, floods, or heavy winds.
We have the resources and knowledge to end world hunger. There is plenty of food produced across the world each day to feed every woman, man, and child; however, the aforementioned factors lead to skewed access and distribution, leaving millions in desperation.
War is a primary cause of hunger. By following a map of recent wars in developing countries, one can accurately map famine and malnutrition. Conflict destroys crops and takes labor and other resources out of food production; in addition, food may be used as a political weapon during times of conflict.
The primacy many governments place on military spending is connected to hunger. A disproportionate amount of government money goes to military purposes as opposed to agriculture, education, fishing and preservation of natural resources. Many countries make decisions based upon political considerations, often at the behest of more powerful nations. For instance, more than half of U.S. foreign assistance is "security aid" going to military and political allies.
Environmental Factors
Land degradation and the deforestation of lands, often by big businesses, are a cause of hunger. As lands are clear-cut for cattle ranching or farms, they are left unprotected from wind and water erosion. In addition, economic pressures force many farmers to adopt farming practices which meet short-term needs but cause long-term damage to the environment.
This results in unsustainable farming techniques that often ruin land for future use. This results is land that produces fewer or no crops and is more vulnerable to erosion in the event of drought, floods, or heavy winds.
We have the resources and knowledge to end world hunger. There is plenty of food produced across the world each day to feed every woman, man, and child; however, the aforementioned factors lead to skewed access and distribution, leaving millions in desperation.
Overview of World Hunger
For millions of people, the fight against hunger is a matter of life and death. 841 million people in the world do not have enough food to eat, including 153 million children under the age of 5 years. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations' estimates that 6 million children die each year as a result of hunger and malnutrition. There is no other natural or manmade disaster that compares to the magnitude of devastation caused by world hunger.
841 million people suffer from hunger, malnutrition and famine across the world; 550 million hungry people live in Asia and 170 million in sub-saharan Africa. In total, 95% of people experiencing hunger live in developing countries. However, hunger has recently grown in severity in countries like the United States and former Soviet Union countries, mainly as a result of poverty.
The Extent of the Problem
•40,000 children under age five die every day from hunger and preventable diseases. That's 24 children a minute; equal to three 747's crashing every hour, every day, all year.
•The loss of human life from hunger is greater than if an atomic bomb were to be dropped on a densely populated area every three days.
•One in every five people in the world is hungry.
•More people have died from hunger in the past two years that were killed in World War I and World War II combined.
•70% of childhood deaths are associated with malnutrition and preventable diseases.
•70% of people in Asia live in extreme poverty.
Causes of world hunger include political, economic, and environmental factors.
841 million people suffer from hunger, malnutrition and famine across the world; 550 million hungry people live in Asia and 170 million in sub-saharan Africa. In total, 95% of people experiencing hunger live in developing countries. However, hunger has recently grown in severity in countries like the United States and former Soviet Union countries, mainly as a result of poverty.
The Extent of the Problem
•40,000 children under age five die every day from hunger and preventable diseases. That's 24 children a minute; equal to three 747's crashing every hour, every day, all year.
•The loss of human life from hunger is greater than if an atomic bomb were to be dropped on a densely populated area every three days.
•One in every five people in the world is hungry.
•More people have died from hunger in the past two years that were killed in World War I and World War II combined.
•70% of childhood deaths are associated with malnutrition and preventable diseases.
•70% of people in Asia live in extreme poverty.
Causes of world hunger include political, economic, and environmental factors.
Micronutrients
Micronutrients Quite a few trace elements or micronutrients--vitamins and minerals--are important for health. 1 out of 3 people in developing countries are affected by vitamin and mineral deficiencies, according to the World Health Organization.
Three--perhaps the most important in terms of current health consequences for poor people in developing countries--are:
Vitamin A Vitamin A deficiency can cause night blindness and reduces the body's resistance to disease. In children Vitamin A deficiency can also cause growth retardation. Between 100 and 140 million children are vitamin A deficient. An estimated 250,000 to 500 000 vitamin A-deficient children become blind every year, half of them dying within 12 months of losing their sight. (World Health Organization)
Iron Iron deficiency is a principal cause of anemia. Two billion people—over 30 percent of the world’s population—are anemic, mainly due to iron deficiency, and, in developing countries, frequently exacerbated by malaria and worm infections. For children, health consequences include premature birth, low birth weight, infections, and elevated risk of death. Later, physical and cognitive development are impaired, resulting in lowered school performance. For pregnant women, anemia contributes to 20 percent of all maternal deaths (World Health Organization).
Iodine Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) jeopardize children’s mental health– often their very lives. Serious iodine deficiency during pregnancy may result in stillbirths, abortions and congenital abnormalities such as cretinism, a grave, irreversible form of mental retardation that affects people living in iodine-deficient areas of Africa and Asia. IDD also causes mental impairment that lowers intellectual prowess at home, at school, and at work. IDD affects over 740 million people, 13 percent of the world’s population. Fifty million people have some degree of mental impairment caused by IDD (World Health Organization).
Three--perhaps the most important in terms of current health consequences for poor people in developing countries--are:
Vitamin A Vitamin A deficiency can cause night blindness and reduces the body's resistance to disease. In children Vitamin A deficiency can also cause growth retardation. Between 100 and 140 million children are vitamin A deficient. An estimated 250,000 to 500 000 vitamin A-deficient children become blind every year, half of them dying within 12 months of losing their sight. (World Health Organization)
Iron Iron deficiency is a principal cause of anemia. Two billion people—over 30 percent of the world’s population—are anemic, mainly due to iron deficiency, and, in developing countries, frequently exacerbated by malaria and worm infections. For children, health consequences include premature birth, low birth weight, infections, and elevated risk of death. Later, physical and cognitive development are impaired, resulting in lowered school performance. For pregnant women, anemia contributes to 20 percent of all maternal deaths (World Health Organization).
Iodine Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) jeopardize children’s mental health– often their very lives. Serious iodine deficiency during pregnancy may result in stillbirths, abortions and congenital abnormalities such as cretinism, a grave, irreversible form of mental retardation that affects people living in iodine-deficient areas of Africa and Asia. IDD also causes mental impairment that lowers intellectual prowess at home, at school, and at work. IDD affects over 740 million people, 13 percent of the world’s population. Fifty million people have some degree of mental impairment caused by IDD (World Health Organization).
Conflict as a cause of hunger and poverty
Conflict as a cause of hunger and poverty. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reports that as of December 2006, there were at least 22.7 million displaced, including 9.9 million refugees and 12.8 million internally displaced persons (UNHCR 2007). (Refugees flee to another country while internally displaced people move to another area of their own country.)
Most people become refugees or are internally displaced as a result of conflict, though there are also natural causes such as drought, earthquakes, and flooding. In the early stages of refugee emergencies, malnutrition runs rampant, exponentially increasing the risk of disease and death (World Health Organization 2003). But, important and (relatively) visible though it is, conflict is less important as poverty as a cause of hunger. (Using the statistics above 798 million people suffer from chronic hunger while 22.7 million people are displaced.)
Hunger is also a cause of poverty. By causing poor health, low levels of energy, and even mental impairment, hunger can lead to even greater poverty by reducing people's ability to work and learn. [Expand with citations]
Progress in reducing the number of hungry people. The target set at the 1996 World Food Summit was to halve the number of undernourished people by 2015 from their number in 1990-92. (FAO uses three year averages in its calculation of undernourished people.)
The (estimated) number of undernourished people in developing countries was 824 million in 1990-92. In 2000-02, the number had declined only slightly to 820 million (854 million worldwide including countries in transition--formerly part of the Soviet bloc--and developed countries [FAO 2006])
So, overall, the world is not making progress toward the world food summit goal, although there has been progress in Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. [Mention Millennium development goals.]
Most people become refugees or are internally displaced as a result of conflict, though there are also natural causes such as drought, earthquakes, and flooding. In the early stages of refugee emergencies, malnutrition runs rampant, exponentially increasing the risk of disease and death (World Health Organization 2003). But, important and (relatively) visible though it is, conflict is less important as poverty as a cause of hunger. (Using the statistics above 798 million people suffer from chronic hunger while 22.7 million people are displaced.)
Hunger is also a cause of poverty. By causing poor health, low levels of energy, and even mental impairment, hunger can lead to even greater poverty by reducing people's ability to work and learn. [Expand with citations]
Progress in reducing the number of hungry people. The target set at the 1996 World Food Summit was to halve the number of undernourished people by 2015 from their number in 1990-92. (FAO uses three year averages in its calculation of undernourished people.)
The (estimated) number of undernourished people in developing countries was 824 million in 1990-92. In 2000-02, the number had declined only slightly to 820 million (854 million worldwide including countries in transition--formerly part of the Soviet bloc--and developed countries [FAO 2006])
So, overall, the world is not making progress toward the world food summit goal, although there has been progress in Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. [Mention Millennium development goals.]
The world produces
The world produces enough food to feed everyone. World agriculture produces 17 percent more calories per person today than it did 30 years ago, despite a 70 percent population increase. This is enough to provide everyone in the world with at least 2,720 kilocalories (kcal) per person per day.
The principal problem is that many people in the world do not have sufficient land to grow, or income to purchase, enough food.Poverty is the principal cause of hunger. The causes of poverty include poor people's lack of resources, an extremely unequal income distribution in the world and within specific countries, conflict, and hunger itself.
As of 2008 (2004 statistics), the World Bank has estimated that there were an estimated 982 million poor people in developing countries who live on $1 a day or less (World Bank, Understanding Poverty, Chen 2004). This compares to the FAO estimate of 850 million undernourished people.
Extreme poverty remains an alarming problem in the world’s developing regions, despite the advances made in the 1990s till now, which reduced "dollar a day" poverty from (an estimated) 1.23 billion people to 982 million in 2004, a reduction of 20 percent over the period. Progress in poverty reduction has been concentrated in Asia, and especially, East Asia, with the major improvement occurring in China. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of people in extreme poverty has increased.
The principal problem is that many people in the world do not have sufficient land to grow, or income to purchase, enough food.Poverty is the principal cause of hunger. The causes of poverty include poor people's lack of resources, an extremely unequal income distribution in the world and within specific countries, conflict, and hunger itself.
As of 2008 (2004 statistics), the World Bank has estimated that there were an estimated 982 million poor people in developing countries who live on $1 a day or less (World Bank, Understanding Poverty, Chen 2004). This compares to the FAO estimate of 850 million undernourished people.
Extreme poverty remains an alarming problem in the world’s developing regions, despite the advances made in the 1990s till now, which reduced "dollar a day" poverty from (an estimated) 1.23 billion people to 982 million in 2004, a reduction of 20 percent over the period. Progress in poverty reduction has been concentrated in Asia, and especially, East Asia, with the major improvement occurring in China. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of people in extreme poverty has increased.
Undernutrition
Children are the most visible victims of undernutrition. Children who are poorly nourished suffer up to 160 days of illness each year. Poor nutrition plays a role in at least half of the 10.9 million child deaths each year--five million deaths. Undernutrition magnifies the effect of every disease, including measles and malaria.
The estimated proportions of deaths in which undernutrition is an underlying cause are roughly similar for diarrhea (61%), malaria (57%), pneumonia (52%), and measles (45%) (Black 2003, Bryce 2005). Malnutrition can also be caused by diseases, such as the diseases that cause diarrhea, by reducing the body's ability to convert food into usable nutrients.
According to the most recent estimate that Hunger Notes could find, malnutrition, as measured by stunting, affects 32.5 percent of children in developing countries--one of three (de Onis 2000). Geographically, more than 70 percent of malnourished children live in Asia, 26 percent in Africa and 4 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean.
In many cases, their plight began even before birth with a malnourished mother. Under-nutrition among pregnant women in developing countries leads to 1 out of 6 infants born with low birth weight. This is not only a risk factor for neonatal deaths, but also causes learning disabilities, mental, retardation, poor health, blindness and premature death.
The estimated proportions of deaths in which undernutrition is an underlying cause are roughly similar for diarrhea (61%), malaria (57%), pneumonia (52%), and measles (45%) (Black 2003, Bryce 2005). Malnutrition can also be caused by diseases, such as the diseases that cause diarrhea, by reducing the body's ability to convert food into usable nutrients.
According to the most recent estimate that Hunger Notes could find, malnutrition, as measured by stunting, affects 32.5 percent of children in developing countries--one of three (de Onis 2000). Geographically, more than 70 percent of malnourished children live in Asia, 26 percent in Africa and 4 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean.
In many cases, their plight began even before birth with a malnourished mother. Under-nutrition among pregnant women in developing countries leads to 1 out of 6 infants born with low birth weight. This is not only a risk factor for neonatal deaths, but also causes learning disabilities, mental, retardation, poor health, blindness and premature death.
Protein-energy malnutrition
Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is the most lethal form of malnutrition/hunger. It is basically a lack of calories and protein. Food is converted into energy by humans, and the energy contained in food is measured by calories. Protein is necessary for key body functions including provision of essential amino acids and development and maintenance of muscles.
No one really knows how many people are malnourished. The statistic most frequently cited is that of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, which measures 'undernutrition'. The most recent estimate (2006) of the FAO says that 854 million people worldwide are undernourished. This is 12.6 percent of the estimated world population of 6.6 billion. Most of the undernourished--820 million--are in developing countries. The FAO estimate is based on statistical aggregates.
It looks at a country's income level and income distribution and uses this information to estimate how many people receive such a low level of income that they are malnourished. It is not an estimate based on seeing to what extent actual people are malnourished and projecting from there (as would be done by survey sampling). [It has been argued that the FAO approach is not sufficient to give accurate estimates of malnutrition (Poverty and Undernutrition p. 298 by Peter Svedberg).] In July 2008, FAO said that an additional 50 million people became undernourished in 2007 due to higher food prices.
Undernutrition is a relatively new concept, but is increasingly used. It should be taken as basically equivalent to malnutrition. (It should be said as an aside, that the idea of undernourishment, its relationship to malnutrition, and the reasons for its emergence as a concept is not clear to Hunger .)
No one really knows how many people are malnourished. The statistic most frequently cited is that of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, which measures 'undernutrition'. The most recent estimate (2006) of the FAO says that 854 million people worldwide are undernourished. This is 12.6 percent of the estimated world population of 6.6 billion. Most of the undernourished--820 million--are in developing countries. The FAO estimate is based on statistical aggregates.
It looks at a country's income level and income distribution and uses this information to estimate how many people receive such a low level of income that they are malnourished. It is not an estimate based on seeing to what extent actual people are malnourished and projecting from there (as would be done by survey sampling). [It has been argued that the FAO approach is not sufficient to give accurate estimates of malnutrition (Poverty and Undernutrition p. 298 by Peter Svedberg).] In July 2008, FAO said that an additional 50 million people became undernourished in 2007 due to higher food prices.
Undernutrition is a relatively new concept, but is increasingly used. It should be taken as basically equivalent to malnutrition. (It should be said as an aside, that the idea of undernourishment, its relationship to malnutrition, and the reasons for its emergence as a concept is not clear to Hunger .)
World Hunger Education Service
World Hunger Education Service
Hunger is a term which has three meanings (Oxford English Dictionary 1971)
•The uneasy or painful sensation caused by want of food; craving appetite. Also the exhausted condition caused by want of food
•The want or scarcity of food in a country
•A strong desire or craving
World hunger refers to the second definition, aggregated to the world level. The related technical term (in this case operationalized in medicine) is
malnutrition
Malnutrition is a general term that indicates a lack of some or all nutritional elements necessary for human health.
There are two basic types of malnutrition. The first and most important is protein-energy malnutrition--the lack of enough protein (from meat and other sources) and food that provides energy (measured in calories) which all of the basic food groups provide. This is the type of malnutrition that is referred to when world hunger is discussed. The second type of malnutrition, also very important, is micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiency.
This is not the type of malnutrition that is referred to when world hunger is discussed, though it is certainly very important.
[Recently there has also been a move to include obesity as a third form of malnutrition. Considering obesity as malnutrition expands the previous usual meaning of the term which referred to poor nutrition due to lack of food inputs.2 It is poor nutrition, but it is certainly not typically due to a lack of calories, but rather too many (although poor food choices, often due to poverty, are part of the problem). Obesity will not be considered here, although obesity is certainly a health problem and is increasingly considered as a type of malnutrition.]
Hunger is a term which has three meanings (Oxford English Dictionary 1971)
•The uneasy or painful sensation caused by want of food; craving appetite. Also the exhausted condition caused by want of food
•The want or scarcity of food in a country
•A strong desire or craving
World hunger refers to the second definition, aggregated to the world level. The related technical term (in this case operationalized in medicine) is
malnutrition
Malnutrition is a general term that indicates a lack of some or all nutritional elements necessary for human health.
There are two basic types of malnutrition. The first and most important is protein-energy malnutrition--the lack of enough protein (from meat and other sources) and food that provides energy (measured in calories) which all of the basic food groups provide. This is the type of malnutrition that is referred to when world hunger is discussed. The second type of malnutrition, also very important, is micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiency.
This is not the type of malnutrition that is referred to when world hunger is discussed, though it is certainly very important.
[Recently there has also been a move to include obesity as a third form of malnutrition. Considering obesity as malnutrition expands the previous usual meaning of the term which referred to poor nutrition due to lack of food inputs.2 It is poor nutrition, but it is certainly not typically due to a lack of calories, but rather too many (although poor food choices, often due to poverty, are part of the problem). Obesity will not be considered here, although obesity is certainly a health problem and is increasingly considered as a type of malnutrition.]
Policy responses
Many governments have initiated programs with the proclaimed intention of assisting those who may be considered impoverished or working poor. Much debate is centered upon the efficacy of such programs.
In the United States, fiscal conservatives tend to argue in favor of the approaches recommended by Trickle-down economics, in which stimulation of the investment sector is assumed to lead to increased job opportunities and a better economy.
Examples of conservative measures include lowering taxes and reducing governmental regulation of business and trade. Fiscal progressives tend toward a more direct approach, usually with increased taxes and regulation.
The government funds social welfare programs like food stamps and vouchers, subsidized housing, meal plans, and healthcare, and regulating wages, or by helping the working poor become more competitive in the labor market, through such measures as job training programs, low-interest student loans, and small business loans.
In the United States, fiscal conservatives tend to argue in favor of the approaches recommended by Trickle-down economics, in which stimulation of the investment sector is assumed to lead to increased job opportunities and a better economy.
Examples of conservative measures include lowering taxes and reducing governmental regulation of business and trade. Fiscal progressives tend toward a more direct approach, usually with increased taxes and regulation.
The government funds social welfare programs like food stamps and vouchers, subsidized housing, meal plans, and healthcare, and regulating wages, or by helping the working poor become more competitive in the labor market, through such measures as job training programs, low-interest student loans, and small business loans.
Sunday, March 8, 2009
Possible problems faced by the working poor
Workers without marketable skills may face low wages, potential economic exploitation, unpleasant working conditions, and few opportunities to attain skills that would allow them to escape their personal and economic situations. Unexpected costs (such as medical or repair costs) can substantially decrease the economic ability of the working poor to manage their lives.
In some cases, members of the working poor work at multiple part-time jobs, which require nearly full-time commitment but are classified as "part time". In this situation some benefits, like medical insurance, are not paid by employers
This situation is sometimes referred to as precarious employment. These workers are more often than not without adequate (or in many cases any) health insurance. A common expression of working poor conditions states that such individuals often live from "paycheck to paycheck".
Policy responses
Many governments have initiated programs with the proclaimed intention of assisting those who may be considered impoverished or working poor. Much debate is centered upon the efficacy of such programs.
In the United States, fiscal conservatives tend to argue in favor of the approaches recommended by Trickle-down economics, in which stimulation of the investment sector is assumed to lead to increased job opportunities and a better economy.
Examples of conservative measures include lowering taxes and reducing governmental regulation of business and trade. Fiscal progressives tend toward a more direct approach, usually with increased taxes and regulation.
The government funds social welfare programs like food stamps and vouchers, subsidized housing, meal plans, and healthcare, and regulating wages, or by helping the working poor become more competitive in the labor market, through such measures as job training programs, low-interest student loans, and small business loans.
In some cases, members of the working poor work at multiple part-time jobs, which require nearly full-time commitment but are classified as "part time". In this situation some benefits, like medical insurance, are not paid by employers
This situation is sometimes referred to as precarious employment. These workers are more often than not without adequate (or in many cases any) health insurance. A common expression of working poor conditions states that such individuals often live from "paycheck to paycheck".
Policy responses
Many governments have initiated programs with the proclaimed intention of assisting those who may be considered impoverished or working poor. Much debate is centered upon the efficacy of such programs.
In the United States, fiscal conservatives tend to argue in favor of the approaches recommended by Trickle-down economics, in which stimulation of the investment sector is assumed to lead to increased job opportunities and a better economy.
Examples of conservative measures include lowering taxes and reducing governmental regulation of business and trade. Fiscal progressives tend toward a more direct approach, usually with increased taxes and regulation.
The government funds social welfare programs like food stamps and vouchers, subsidized housing, meal plans, and healthcare, and regulating wages, or by helping the working poor become more competitive in the labor market, through such measures as job training programs, low-interest student loans, and small business loans.
Working poor
Working poor is a term used to describe individuals and families who maintain regular employment but remain in relative poverty due to low levels of pay and dependent expenses. The working poor are often distinguished from paupers, poor who are supported by government aid or charity.
Definitions
There are various issues to consider when studying the extent, cause and definition of "working poor" and "working poor" conditions. One such issue is the definition of poverty. Given on a global scale, the definition and requisites to be considered impoverished or in poverty may sharply contrast the conditions of any one specific country. When viewed at a high level, the global definitions of poverty are typically much lower than that of more prosperous countries.
In areas such as the United States, England, France and other more prosperous nations, the poverty line is much higher than that of countries with typically lower or even negative economic conditions. When considering localized differences, such as in the United States, differences in market rates of goods and services may impact the effects of poverty.
Yet another consideration to be made with a global view is data collection and reporting methods. With no globally accepted standards on data recording and reporting, variances may be obscured, omit or inflate specific factors considered in determining poverty levels or measures of the working poor.
Definitions
There are various issues to consider when studying the extent, cause and definition of "working poor" and "working poor" conditions. One such issue is the definition of poverty. Given on a global scale, the definition and requisites to be considered impoverished or in poverty may sharply contrast the conditions of any one specific country. When viewed at a high level, the global definitions of poverty are typically much lower than that of more prosperous countries.
In areas such as the United States, England, France and other more prosperous nations, the poverty line is much higher than that of countries with typically lower or even negative economic conditions. When considering localized differences, such as in the United States, differences in market rates of goods and services may impact the effects of poverty.
Yet another consideration to be made with a global view is data collection and reporting methods. With no globally accepted standards on data recording and reporting, variances may be obscured, omit or inflate specific factors considered in determining poverty levels or measures of the working poor.
Poverty as restriction of opportunities
The environment of poverty is one marked with unstable conditions and a lack of capital (both social and economical) which together create the vulnerability characteristic of poverty. Because a person’s daily life is lived within their environment, a person’s environment determines daily decisions and actions based on what is present and what is not.
Dipkanar Chakravarti argues that the poor’s daily practice of navigating the world of poverty generates a fluency in the poverty environment, but a near illiteracy in the environment of the larger society. Thus, when a poor person enters into transactions and interactions with the social norm, their understanding of it is limited, and thus decisions revert to decisions most effective in the poverty environment.
Through this a sort of cycle is born in which “[t]he dimensions of poverty are not merely additive, but are interacting and reinforcing in nature.”
According to Arjun Appadurai (2004), the key to the environment of poverty, which causes the poor to enter into this cycle, is the poor’s lack of capacities. Appardurai’s idea of capacity relates to Albert Hirschman’s ideas of “voice” and “exit” which are ways in which people can decline aspects of their environment; to voice displeasure and aim for change or to leave said aspect of environment. Thus, a person in poverty lacks adequate voice and exit (capacities) with which they can change their position.
Appadurai specifically deals with the capacity to aspire and its role in the continuation of poverty and its environment. Aspirations are formed through social life and its interactions. Thus, it can be said, that one’s aspirations are influenced by one’s environment. Appadurai claims that the better off one is, the more chances one has to not only reach aspirations but to also see the pathways which lead to the fulfillment of aspirations. By actively practicing the use of their capacity of aspiration the elite not only expand their aspiration horizon but also solidify their ability to reach aspirations by learning the easiest and most efficient paths through said practice. On the other hand, the poor’s horizon of aspiration is much closer and less steady than that of the elite.
Dipkanar Chakravarti argues that the poor’s daily practice of navigating the world of poverty generates a fluency in the poverty environment, but a near illiteracy in the environment of the larger society. Thus, when a poor person enters into transactions and interactions with the social norm, their understanding of it is limited, and thus decisions revert to decisions most effective in the poverty environment.
Through this a sort of cycle is born in which “[t]he dimensions of poverty are not merely additive, but are interacting and reinforcing in nature.”
According to Arjun Appadurai (2004), the key to the environment of poverty, which causes the poor to enter into this cycle, is the poor’s lack of capacities. Appardurai’s idea of capacity relates to Albert Hirschman’s ideas of “voice” and “exit” which are ways in which people can decline aspects of their environment; to voice displeasure and aim for change or to leave said aspect of environment. Thus, a person in poverty lacks adequate voice and exit (capacities) with which they can change their position.
Appadurai specifically deals with the capacity to aspire and its role in the continuation of poverty and its environment. Aspirations are formed through social life and its interactions. Thus, it can be said, that one’s aspirations are influenced by one’s environment. Appadurai claims that the better off one is, the more chances one has to not only reach aspirations but to also see the pathways which lead to the fulfillment of aspirations. By actively practicing the use of their capacity of aspiration the elite not only expand their aspiration horizon but also solidify their ability to reach aspirations by learning the easiest and most efficient paths through said practice. On the other hand, the poor’s horizon of aspiration is much closer and less steady than that of the elite.
Poverty as a label
Various theorists believe the way poverty is approached, defined, and thus thought about, plays a role in its perpetuation. Maia Green (2006) explains that modern development literature tends to view poverty as agency filled. When poverty is prescribed agency, poverty becomes something that happens to people. Poverty absorbs people into itself and the people, in turn, become a part of poverty, devoid of their human characteristics.
In the same way, poverty, according to Green, is viewed as an object in which all social relations (and persons involved) are obscured. Issues such as structural failings (see earlier section), institutionalized inequalities, or corruption may lie at the heart of a region’s poverty, but these are obscured by broad statements about poverty. Arjun Apadurai writes of the “terms of recognition” (drawn from Charles Taylors’ ‘points of recognition), which are given the poor are what allows poverty to take on this generalized autonomous form.
The terms are “given” to the poor because the poor lack social and economic capital, and thus have little to no influence on how they are represented and/or perceived in the larger community. Furthermore, the term “poverty”, is often used in a generalized matter. This further removes the poor from defining their situation as the broadness of the term covers differences in histories and causes of local inequalities. Solutions or plans for reduction of poverty often fail precisely because the context of a region’s poverty is removed and local conditions are not considered.
The specific ways in which the poor and poverty are recognized frame them in a negative light. In development literature, poverty becomes something to be eradicated, or, attacked. It is always portrayed as a singular problem to be fixed. When a negative view of poverty (as an animate object) is fostered, it can often lead to an extension of negativity to those who are experiencing it.
This in turn can lead to justification of inequalities through the idea of the deserving poor. Even if thought patterns do not go as far as justification, the negative light poverty is viewed in, according to Appadurai, does much to ensure little change in the policies of redistribution.
In the same way, poverty, according to Green, is viewed as an object in which all social relations (and persons involved) are obscured. Issues such as structural failings (see earlier section), institutionalized inequalities, or corruption may lie at the heart of a region’s poverty, but these are obscured by broad statements about poverty. Arjun Apadurai writes of the “terms of recognition” (drawn from Charles Taylors’ ‘points of recognition), which are given the poor are what allows poverty to take on this generalized autonomous form.
The terms are “given” to the poor because the poor lack social and economic capital, and thus have little to no influence on how they are represented and/or perceived in the larger community. Furthermore, the term “poverty”, is often used in a generalized matter. This further removes the poor from defining their situation as the broadness of the term covers differences in histories and causes of local inequalities. Solutions or plans for reduction of poverty often fail precisely because the context of a region’s poverty is removed and local conditions are not considered.
The specific ways in which the poor and poverty are recognized frame them in a negative light. In development literature, poverty becomes something to be eradicated, or, attacked. It is always portrayed as a singular problem to be fixed. When a negative view of poverty (as an animate object) is fostered, it can often lead to an extension of negativity to those who are experiencing it.
This in turn can lead to justification of inequalities through the idea of the deserving poor. Even if thought patterns do not go as far as justification, the negative light poverty is viewed in, according to Appadurai, does much to ensure little change in the policies of redistribution.
Grondona presents two ideal value systems (mental models), one of which has values only favoring development
Grondona presents two ideal value systems (mental models), one of which has values only favoring development, the other only with value which resist development. Real value systems fluctuate and fall somewhere between the two poles, but developed countries tend to bunch near one end, while undeveloped countries bunch near the other. Grondona goes on to identify twenty cultural factors on which the two value systems stand in opposition.
These factors include such things as the dominant religion; the role of the individual in society; the value placed on work; concepts of wealth, competition, justice and time; and the role of education. In “Promoting Progressive Cultural Change”, also from Culture Matters, Lawrence E. Harrison identifies values, like Grondona’s factors, which differ between “progressive” cultures and “static” cultures. Religion, value of work, overall justice and time orientation are included in his list, but Harrison also adds frugality and community as important factors.
Like Grondona and Harrison, Lindsay also presents “patterns of thought” which differ between nations that stand at opposite poles of the developmental scale. Lindsay focuses more on economic aspects such as the form of capital focused upon and market characteristics. Key themes which emerge from these lists as characteristic of developmental cultures are: trust in the individual with a fostering of individual strengths; the ability for free thinking in an open, safe environment; importance of questioning/innovation; law is supreme and holds the power; future orientated time frame with an emphasis on achievable, practical goals; meritocracy; an autonomous mindset within the larger world; strong work ethic is highly valued and rewarded; a microeconomic focus; and a value that is non-economic, but not anti-economic, which is always wanting.
Characteristics of the ideal non-developmental value system are: suppression of the individual through control of information and censorship; present/past time orientation with emphasis on grandiose, often unachievable, goals; macroeconomic focus; access to leaders allowing for easier and greater corruption; unstable distribution of law and justice (family and its connections matter most); and a passive mindset within the larger world.
Grondona, Harrison, and Lindsay all feel that at least some aspects of development-resistant cultures need to change in order to allow under-developed nations (and cultural minorities within developed nations) to develop effectively. According to their argument, poverty is fueled by cultural characteristics within under-developed nations, and in order for poverty to be brought under control, said nations must move down the development path.
These factors include such things as the dominant religion; the role of the individual in society; the value placed on work; concepts of wealth, competition, justice and time; and the role of education. In “Promoting Progressive Cultural Change”, also from Culture Matters, Lawrence E. Harrison identifies values, like Grondona’s factors, which differ between “progressive” cultures and “static” cultures. Religion, value of work, overall justice and time orientation are included in his list, but Harrison also adds frugality and community as important factors.
Like Grondona and Harrison, Lindsay also presents “patterns of thought” which differ between nations that stand at opposite poles of the developmental scale. Lindsay focuses more on economic aspects such as the form of capital focused upon and market characteristics. Key themes which emerge from these lists as characteristic of developmental cultures are: trust in the individual with a fostering of individual strengths; the ability for free thinking in an open, safe environment; importance of questioning/innovation; law is supreme and holds the power; future orientated time frame with an emphasis on achievable, practical goals; meritocracy; an autonomous mindset within the larger world; strong work ethic is highly valued and rewarded; a microeconomic focus; and a value that is non-economic, but not anti-economic, which is always wanting.
Characteristics of the ideal non-developmental value system are: suppression of the individual through control of information and censorship; present/past time orientation with emphasis on grandiose, often unachievable, goals; macroeconomic focus; access to leaders allowing for easier and greater corruption; unstable distribution of law and justice (family and its connections matter most); and a passive mindset within the larger world.
Grondona, Harrison, and Lindsay all feel that at least some aspects of development-resistant cultures need to change in order to allow under-developed nations (and cultural minorities within developed nations) to develop effectively. According to their argument, poverty is fueled by cultural characteristics within under-developed nations, and in order for poverty to be brought under control, said nations must move down the development path.
Causes of poverty in developing nations
Causes of poverty in developing nations
Poverty as cultural characteristics
Development plays a central role to poverty reduction in third world countries. Some authors feel that the national mindset itself plays a role in the ability for a country to develop and to thus reduce poverty. Mariano Grondona (2000) outlines twenty “cultural factors” which, depending on the culture’s view of each, can be indicators as to whether the cultural environment is favorable or resistant to development.
In turn Lawrence E. Harrison (2000) identifies ten “values” which, like Grondona’s factors, can be indicative of the nation’s developmental environment. Finally, Stace Lindsay (2000) claims the differences between development-prone and development-resistant nations is attributed to mental models (which, like values, influence the decisions humans make). Mental models are also cultural creations. Grondona, Harrison and Lindsay all feel that without development orientated values and mindsets, nations will find it difficult if not impossible to develop efficiently, and that some sort of cultural change will be needed in these nations in order to reduce poverty.
In “A Cultural Typology of Economic Development”, from the book Culture Matters, Mariano Grondona claims development is a matter of decisions. These decisions, whether they are favorable to economic development or not, are made within the context of culture. All cultural values considered together create “value systems”.
These systems heavily influence the way decisions are made as well as the reactions and outcomes of said decisions. In the same book, Stace Lindsay’s chapter claims the decisions individuals make are a result of mental models. These mental models influence all aspects of human action. Like Grondona’s value systems, these mental models which dictate a nations stance toward development and hence its ability to deal with poverty.
Poverty as cultural characteristics
Development plays a central role to poverty reduction in third world countries. Some authors feel that the national mindset itself plays a role in the ability for a country to develop and to thus reduce poverty. Mariano Grondona (2000) outlines twenty “cultural factors” which, depending on the culture’s view of each, can be indicators as to whether the cultural environment is favorable or resistant to development.
In turn Lawrence E. Harrison (2000) identifies ten “values” which, like Grondona’s factors, can be indicative of the nation’s developmental environment. Finally, Stace Lindsay (2000) claims the differences between development-prone and development-resistant nations is attributed to mental models (which, like values, influence the decisions humans make). Mental models are also cultural creations. Grondona, Harrison and Lindsay all feel that without development orientated values and mindsets, nations will find it difficult if not impossible to develop efficiently, and that some sort of cultural change will be needed in these nations in order to reduce poverty.
In “A Cultural Typology of Economic Development”, from the book Culture Matters, Mariano Grondona claims development is a matter of decisions. These decisions, whether they are favorable to economic development or not, are made within the context of culture. All cultural values considered together create “value systems”.
These systems heavily influence the way decisions are made as well as the reactions and outcomes of said decisions. In the same book, Stace Lindsay’s chapter claims the decisions individuals make are a result of mental models. These mental models influence all aspects of human action. Like Grondona’s value systems, these mental models which dictate a nations stance toward development and hence its ability to deal with poverty.
Poverty as a structural failing
Rank, Yoon, and Herschl (2003) present a contrary argument to the idea that personal failings are the cause of poverty. The argument presented is that United States poverty is result of “failings at the structural level.” Key social and economic structural failings which contribute heavily to poverty within the U.S. are identified in the article. The first is a failure of the job market to provide a proper amount of jobs which pay enough to keep families out of poverty.
Even if unemployment is low, the labor market may be saturated with low paying, part-time work which lacks benefits (thus limiting the amount of full-time, good paying jobs). Rank, Yoon and Herschl examined the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), a longitudinal study on employment and income. Using the 1999 official poverty line of $17,029 for a family of four, it was found that 9.4% of persons working full time and 14.9% of persons working at least part time did not earn enough annually to keep them above the poverty line. Low minimum wage, combined with part-time jobs which offer no benefits have contributed to the labor market’s inability to produce enough jobs which can keep a family out of poverty this is an example of an economic structural failure.
Rank, Yoon and Herschl point to the minimal amount of social safety nets found with in the U.S. as a social structural failure and a major contributor to poverty in the U.S. Other industrialized nations devote more resources to assisting the poor than the U.S. As a result of this difference poverty is reduced in nations which devote more to poverty reduction measure and programs.
Rank et al use a table to drive this point home. The table shows that in 1994, the actual rate of poverty (what the rate would be without government interventions) in the U.S. was 29%. When compared to actual rates in Canada (29%), Finland(33%), France(39%), Germany(29%), the Netherlands(30%), Norway(27%), Sweden(36%) and the United Kingdom(38%), the United States rate is low. But when government measures and programs are included, the rate of reduction in poverty in the United States is low (38%). Canada and the United Kingdom had the lowest reduction rates outside of the U.S. at 66%, while Sweden, Finland and Norway had reduction rates greater than 80% .
Even if unemployment is low, the labor market may be saturated with low paying, part-time work which lacks benefits (thus limiting the amount of full-time, good paying jobs). Rank, Yoon and Herschl examined the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), a longitudinal study on employment and income. Using the 1999 official poverty line of $17,029 for a family of four, it was found that 9.4% of persons working full time and 14.9% of persons working at least part time did not earn enough annually to keep them above the poverty line. Low minimum wage, combined with part-time jobs which offer no benefits have contributed to the labor market’s inability to produce enough jobs which can keep a family out of poverty this is an example of an economic structural failure.
Rank, Yoon and Herschl point to the minimal amount of social safety nets found with in the U.S. as a social structural failure and a major contributor to poverty in the U.S. Other industrialized nations devote more resources to assisting the poor than the U.S. As a result of this difference poverty is reduced in nations which devote more to poverty reduction measure and programs.
Rank et al use a table to drive this point home. The table shows that in 1994, the actual rate of poverty (what the rate would be without government interventions) in the U.S. was 29%. When compared to actual rates in Canada (29%), Finland(33%), France(39%), Germany(29%), the Netherlands(30%), Norway(27%), Sweden(36%) and the United Kingdom(38%), the United States rate is low. But when government measures and programs are included, the rate of reduction in poverty in the United States is low (38%). Canada and the United Kingdom had the lowest reduction rates outside of the U.S. at 66%, while Sweden, Finland and Norway had reduction rates greater than 80% .
Theories of poverty
Theories of poverty
Theories on the causes of poverty are the foundation upon which poverty reduction strategies are based.
While in developed nations poverty is often seen as either a personal or a structural defect, in developing nations the issue of poverty is more profound due to the lack of governmental funds. Some theories on poverty in the developing world focus on cultural characteristics as a retardant of further development. Other theories focus on social and political aspects that perpetuate poverty; perceptions of the poor has a significant impact on the design and execution of programs to alleviate poverty.
Poverty as a personal failing
When it comes to poverty in the United States, there are two main lines of thought. The most common line of thought within the U.S. is that a person is poor because of personal traits. These traits in turn have caused the person to fail. Supposed traits range from personality characteristics, such as laziness, to educational levels. Despite this range, it is always viewed as the individual’s personal failure not to climb out of poverty.
This thought patterns stems from the idea of meritocracy and its entrenchment within U.S. thought. Meritocracy, according to
Katherine S. Newman is “the view that those who are worthy are rewarded and those who fail to reap rewards must also lack self-worth.” This does not mean that all followers of meritocracy believe that a person in poverty deserves their low standard of living. Rather the underlying ideas of personal failure show in the resistance to social and economic programs such as welfare; a poor individual’s lack of prosperity shows a personal failing and should not be compensated (or justified) by the state.
Theories on the causes of poverty are the foundation upon which poverty reduction strategies are based.
While in developed nations poverty is often seen as either a personal or a structural defect, in developing nations the issue of poverty is more profound due to the lack of governmental funds. Some theories on poverty in the developing world focus on cultural characteristics as a retardant of further development. Other theories focus on social and political aspects that perpetuate poverty; perceptions of the poor has a significant impact on the design and execution of programs to alleviate poverty.
Poverty as a personal failing
When it comes to poverty in the United States, there are two main lines of thought. The most common line of thought within the U.S. is that a person is poor because of personal traits. These traits in turn have caused the person to fail. Supposed traits range from personality characteristics, such as laziness, to educational levels. Despite this range, it is always viewed as the individual’s personal failure not to climb out of poverty.
This thought patterns stems from the idea of meritocracy and its entrenchment within U.S. thought. Meritocracy, according to
Katherine S. Newman is “the view that those who are worthy are rewarded and those who fail to reap rewards must also lack self-worth.” This does not mean that all followers of meritocracy believe that a person in poverty deserves their low standard of living. Rather the underlying ideas of personal failure show in the resistance to social and economic programs such as welfare; a poor individual’s lack of prosperity shows a personal failing and should not be compensated (or justified) by the state.
Jeffrey Sachs and The End of Poverty
Jeffrey Sachs, in his book The End of Poverty, discusses the poverty trap and prescribes a set of policy initiatives intended to end the trap. His policy prescriptions recommend that aid agencies behave as venture capitalists funding start-up companies. Venture capitalists, once they choose to invest in a venture, do not give only half or a third of the amount they feel the venture needs in order to become profitable; if they did, their money would be wasted. If all goes as planned, the venture will eventually become profitable and the venture capitalist will experience an adequate rate of return on investment.
Likewise, Sachs proposes, developed countries cannot give only a fraction of what is needed in aid and expect to reverse the poverty trap in Africa. Just like any other start-up, developing nations absolutely must receive the amount of aid necessary (and promised at the G-8 Summit in 2005) for them to begin to reverse the poverty trap. The problem is that unlike start-ups, which simply go bankrupt if they fail to receive funding, in Africa people continue to die at an exponential rate due in large part to lack of sufficient aid.
Sachs points out that the extreme poor lack six major kinds of capital: human capital, business capital, infrastructure, natural capital, public institutional capital, and knowledge capital. He then details the poverty trap:
The poor start with a very low level of capital per person, and then find themselves trapped in poverty because the ratio of capital per person actually falls from generation to generation. The amount of capital per person declines when the population is growing faster than capital is being accumulated….the question for growth in per capita income is whether the net capital accumulation is large enough to keep up with population growth.
Sachs argues that sufficient foreign aid can make up for the lack of capital in poor countries, maintaining that, “If the foreign assistance is substantial enough, and lasts long enough, the capital stock rises sufficiently to lift households above subsistence.”
Sachs believes the public sector should focus mainly on investments in human capital (health, education, nutrition), infrastructure (roads, power, water and sanitation, environmental conservation), natural capital (conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems), public institutional capital (a well-run public administration, judicial system, police force), and parts of knowledge capital (scientific research for health, energy, agriculture, climate, ecology). Sachs leaves business capital investments to the private sector, which would more efficiently use funding to develop the profitable enterprises necessary to sustain growth. In this sense, Sachs views public institutions as useful in providing the public goods necessary to begin the Rostovian take-off model, but maintains that private goods are more efficiently produced and distributed by private enterprise. This is a widespread view in neoclassical economics.
Likewise, Sachs proposes, developed countries cannot give only a fraction of what is needed in aid and expect to reverse the poverty trap in Africa. Just like any other start-up, developing nations absolutely must receive the amount of aid necessary (and promised at the G-8 Summit in 2005) for them to begin to reverse the poverty trap. The problem is that unlike start-ups, which simply go bankrupt if they fail to receive funding, in Africa people continue to die at an exponential rate due in large part to lack of sufficient aid.
Sachs points out that the extreme poor lack six major kinds of capital: human capital, business capital, infrastructure, natural capital, public institutional capital, and knowledge capital. He then details the poverty trap:
The poor start with a very low level of capital per person, and then find themselves trapped in poverty because the ratio of capital per person actually falls from generation to generation. The amount of capital per person declines when the population is growing faster than capital is being accumulated….the question for growth in per capita income is whether the net capital accumulation is large enough to keep up with population growth.
Sachs argues that sufficient foreign aid can make up for the lack of capital in poor countries, maintaining that, “If the foreign assistance is substantial enough, and lasts long enough, the capital stock rises sufficiently to lift households above subsistence.”
Sachs believes the public sector should focus mainly on investments in human capital (health, education, nutrition), infrastructure (roads, power, water and sanitation, environmental conservation), natural capital (conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems), public institutional capital (a well-run public administration, judicial system, police force), and parts of knowledge capital (scientific research for health, energy, agriculture, climate, ecology). Sachs leaves business capital investments to the private sector, which would more efficiently use funding to develop the profitable enterprises necessary to sustain growth. In this sense, Sachs views public institutions as useful in providing the public goods necessary to begin the Rostovian take-off model, but maintains that private goods are more efficiently produced and distributed by private enterprise. This is a widespread view in neoclassical economics.
Diseases as a cause of poverty
Diseases as a cause of poverty
Some diseases are alleged to cause poverty to some individuals; many of these diseases are mental illnesses that affect socialization, awareness, and intelligence. They include autism, schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder, and certain mental damage caused by substance abuse or trauma.
Poverty trap
A Poverty Trap is a scenario "in which a poor country is simply too poor to achieve sustained economic growth." The trap becomes cyclical and begins to reinforce itself if steps are not taken to break the cycle.
Depending upon a person’s origin of birth, they may find themselves financially stable their entire lives, or at the other extreme, they may find themselves born into severe poverty that seems utterly inescapable. Many factors contribute to a poverty trap, and these factors vary from case to case.
Some of the possible factors include: limited access to credit and capital markets, extreme environmental degradation (which depletes an areas agricultural production potential), corrupt governance, capital flight, poor education systems, lack of public health care, war, poor infrastructure, etcetera. Nations like this may include Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Consequences
Diseases of poverty reflect the dynamic relationship between poverty and poor health; while such diseases result directly from poverty, they also perpetuate and deepen impoverishment by sapping personal and national health and financial resources.
For example, malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations, and by killing tens of millions in sub-Saharan Africa, AIDS alone threatens “the economies, social structures, and political stability of entire societies”
Some diseases are alleged to cause poverty to some individuals; many of these diseases are mental illnesses that affect socialization, awareness, and intelligence. They include autism, schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder, and certain mental damage caused by substance abuse or trauma.
Poverty trap
A Poverty Trap is a scenario "in which a poor country is simply too poor to achieve sustained economic growth." The trap becomes cyclical and begins to reinforce itself if steps are not taken to break the cycle.
Depending upon a person’s origin of birth, they may find themselves financially stable their entire lives, or at the other extreme, they may find themselves born into severe poverty that seems utterly inescapable. Many factors contribute to a poverty trap, and these factors vary from case to case.
Some of the possible factors include: limited access to credit and capital markets, extreme environmental degradation (which depletes an areas agricultural production potential), corrupt governance, capital flight, poor education systems, lack of public health care, war, poor infrastructure, etcetera. Nations like this may include Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Consequences
Diseases of poverty reflect the dynamic relationship between poverty and poor health; while such diseases result directly from poverty, they also perpetuate and deepen impoverishment by sapping personal and national health and financial resources.
For example, malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations, and by killing tens of millions in sub-Saharan Africa, AIDS alone threatens “the economies, social structures, and political stability of entire societies”
Diseases of poverty, Mechanisms and causes
Diseases of poverty are diseases that are more prevalent among "the poor" than among wealthier people. In many cases poverty is the leading risk factor for such diseases, and in some cases disease can (or allegedly) cause poverty. These diseases are in contrast to diseases of affluence which are diseases thought to be a result of increasing wealth in a society
Examples
The three primary diseases of poverty are AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. Developing countries account for 95% of the global AIDS prevalence and 98% of active tuberculosis infections. Furthermore, 90% of malaria deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa.
Together, these three diseases account for 10% of global mortality.
Three additional diseases, measles, pneumonia, and diarrheal diseases also closely associated with poverty, and are often included with AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis in broader definitions and discussions of diseases of poverty. Finally, infant mortality and maternal mortality are far more prevalent among the poor. For example, 98% of the 11,600 daily maternal and neonatal deaths occur in developing countries. Together, diseases of poverty kill approximately 14 million people annually.
Mechanisms and causes
For many environmental and social reasons, including crowded living and working conditions, inadequate sanitation, and disproportionate occupation as sex workers, the poor are more likely to be exposed to infectious diseases. Malnutrition, stress, overwork, and inadequate, inaccessible, or non-existent health care can hinder recovery and exacerbate the disease.
Malnutrition is associated with 54% of childhood deaths from diseases of poverty, and lack of skilled attendants during childbirth is primarily responsible for the high maternal and infant death rates among the poor.
Examples
The three primary diseases of poverty are AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. Developing countries account for 95% of the global AIDS prevalence and 98% of active tuberculosis infections. Furthermore, 90% of malaria deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa.
Together, these three diseases account for 10% of global mortality.
Three additional diseases, measles, pneumonia, and diarrheal diseases also closely associated with poverty, and are often included with AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis in broader definitions and discussions of diseases of poverty. Finally, infant mortality and maternal mortality are far more prevalent among the poor. For example, 98% of the 11,600 daily maternal and neonatal deaths occur in developing countries. Together, diseases of poverty kill approximately 14 million people annually.
Mechanisms and causes
For many environmental and social reasons, including crowded living and working conditions, inadequate sanitation, and disproportionate occupation as sex workers, the poor are more likely to be exposed to infectious diseases. Malnutrition, stress, overwork, and inadequate, inaccessible, or non-existent health care can hinder recovery and exacerbate the disease.
Malnutrition is associated with 54% of childhood deaths from diseases of poverty, and lack of skilled attendants during childbirth is primarily responsible for the high maternal and infant death rates among the poor.
Risks to food security
Fossil fuel dependence
While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input into the process (that is, the energy that must be expended to produce a crop) has also increased at a greater rate, so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, some of which must be developed from fossil fuels, making agriculture increasingly reliant on petroleum products.
Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation.
David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, and Mario Giampietro, senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), place in their study Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy the maximum U.S. population for a sustainable economy at 200 million. To achieve a sustainable economy and avert disaster, the United States must reduce its population by at least one-third, and world population will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the study.
The authors of this study believe that the mentioned agricultural crisis will only begin to impact us after 2020, and will not become critical until 2050. The oncoming peaking of global oil production (and subsequent decline of production), along with the peak of North American natural gas production will very likely precipitate this agricultural crisis much sooner than expected. Geologist Dale Allen Pfeiffer claims that coming decades could see spiraling food prices without relief and massive starvation on a global level such as never experienced before.
However, one should take note that, (numbers taken from the CIA World Factbook), the country of Bangladesh achieved food self-sufficiency in 2002 with both a far higher population density than the USA (~1000 inhabitants per square kilometer in comparison to just 30/km2 for the USA - so this is more than 30 times as many) at only a tiny fraction of the USA's usage of oil, gas, and electricity. Also, pre-industrial Chinese mini-framers/gardeners developed techniques to feed a population of more than 1000 people per square kilometer (cf. e.g. F.H. King's 1911 report, "Farmers of Forty Centuries"). Hence, the dominant problem is not energy availability but the need to stop and revert soil degradation.
While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input into the process (that is, the energy that must be expended to produce a crop) has also increased at a greater rate, so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, some of which must be developed from fossil fuels, making agriculture increasingly reliant on petroleum products.
Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation.
David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, and Mario Giampietro, senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), place in their study Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy the maximum U.S. population for a sustainable economy at 200 million. To achieve a sustainable economy and avert disaster, the United States must reduce its population by at least one-third, and world population will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the study.
The authors of this study believe that the mentioned agricultural crisis will only begin to impact us after 2020, and will not become critical until 2050. The oncoming peaking of global oil production (and subsequent decline of production), along with the peak of North American natural gas production will very likely precipitate this agricultural crisis much sooner than expected. Geologist Dale Allen Pfeiffer claims that coming decades could see spiraling food prices without relief and massive starvation on a global level such as never experienced before.
However, one should take note that, (numbers taken from the CIA World Factbook), the country of Bangladesh achieved food self-sufficiency in 2002 with both a far higher population density than the USA (~1000 inhabitants per square kilometer in comparison to just 30/km2 for the USA - so this is more than 30 times as many) at only a tiny fraction of the USA's usage of oil, gas, and electricity. Also, pre-industrial Chinese mini-framers/gardeners developed techniques to feed a population of more than 1000 people per square kilometer (cf. e.g. F.H. King's 1911 report, "Farmers of Forty Centuries"). Hence, the dominant problem is not energy availability but the need to stop and revert soil degradation.
Biotechnology for smallholders in the (sub)tropics
The area sown to genetically engineered crops in developing countries is rapidly catching-up with the area sown in industrial nations. According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), genetically engineered (biotech, GM) crops were grown by approximately 8.5 million farmers in 21 countries in 2005, up from 8.25 million farmers in 17 countries in 2004.
The largest increase in biotech crop area in any country in 2005 was in Brazil, provisionally estimated at 44,000 km² (94,000 km² in 2005 compared with 50,000 km² in 2004. India had by far the largest year-on-year proportional increase, with almost a threefold increase from 5,000 km² in 2004 to 13,000 km² in 2005.
Current high regulatory costs imposed on varieties created by the more modern methods are a significant hurdle for development of genetically engineered crops well suited to developing country farmers by modern genetic methods. Once a new variety is developed, however, seed provides a good vehicle for distribution of improvements in a package that is familiar to the farmer.
Currently there are some institutes and research groups that have projects in which biotechnology is shared with contact people in less-developed countries on a non-profit basis. These institutes make use of biotechnological methods that do not involve high research and registration costs, such as conservation and multiplication of germplasm and phytosanitation.
The largest increase in biotech crop area in any country in 2005 was in Brazil, provisionally estimated at 44,000 km² (94,000 km² in 2005 compared with 50,000 km² in 2004. India had by far the largest year-on-year proportional increase, with almost a threefold increase from 5,000 km² in 2004 to 13,000 km² in 2005.
Current high regulatory costs imposed on varieties created by the more modern methods are a significant hurdle for development of genetically engineered crops well suited to developing country farmers by modern genetic methods. Once a new variety is developed, however, seed provides a good vehicle for distribution of improvements in a package that is familiar to the farmer.
Currently there are some institutes and research groups that have projects in which biotechnology is shared with contact people in less-developed countries on a non-profit basis. These institutes make use of biotechnological methods that do not involve high research and registration costs, such as conservation and multiplication of germplasm and phytosanitation.
The agriculture-hunger-poverty nexus
The agriculture-hunger-poverty nexus
Eradicating hunger and poverty requires an understanding of the ways in which these two injustices interconnect. Hunger, and the malnourishment that accompanies it, prevents poor people from escaping poverty because it diminishes their ability to learn, work, and care for themselves and their family members. Food insecurity exists when people are undernourished as a result of the physical unavailability of food, their lack of social or economic access to adequate food, and/or inadequate food utilization. Food-insecure people are those individuals whose food intake falls below their minimum calorie (energy) requirements, as well as those who exhibit physical symptoms caused by energy and nutrient deficiencies resulting from an inadequate or unbalanced diet or from the body's inability to use food effectively because of infection or disease.
An alternative view would define the concept of food insecurity as referring only to the consequence of inadequate consumption of nutritious food, considering the physiological utilization of food by the body as being within the domain of nutrition and health. Malnourishment also leads to poor health hence individuals fail to provide for their families. If left unaddressed, hunger sets in motion an array of outcomes that perpetuate malnutrition, reduce the ability of adults to work and to give birth to healthy children, and erode children's ability to learn and lead productive, healthy, and happy lives. This truncation of human development undermines a country's potential for economic development – for generations to come.
There are strong, direct relationships between agricultural productivity, hunger, and poverty. Three-quarters of the world's poor live in rural areas and make their living from agriculture. Hunger and child malnutrition are greater in these areas than in urban areas. Moreover, the higher the proportion of the rural population that obtains its income solely from subsistence farming (without the benefit of pro-poor technologies and access to markets), the higher the incidence of malnutrition. Therefore, improvements in agricultural productivity aimed at small-scale farmers will benefit the rural poor first.
Increased agricultural productivity enables farmers to grow more food, which translates into better diets and, under market conditions that offer a level playing field, into higher farm incomes. With more money, farmers are more likely to diversify production and grow higher-value crops, benefiting not only themselves but the economy as a whole."
Eradicating hunger and poverty requires an understanding of the ways in which these two injustices interconnect. Hunger, and the malnourishment that accompanies it, prevents poor people from escaping poverty because it diminishes their ability to learn, work, and care for themselves and their family members. Food insecurity exists when people are undernourished as a result of the physical unavailability of food, their lack of social or economic access to adequate food, and/or inadequate food utilization. Food-insecure people are those individuals whose food intake falls below their minimum calorie (energy) requirements, as well as those who exhibit physical symptoms caused by energy and nutrient deficiencies resulting from an inadequate or unbalanced diet or from the body's inability to use food effectively because of infection or disease.
An alternative view would define the concept of food insecurity as referring only to the consequence of inadequate consumption of nutritious food, considering the physiological utilization of food by the body as being within the domain of nutrition and health. Malnourishment also leads to poor health hence individuals fail to provide for their families. If left unaddressed, hunger sets in motion an array of outcomes that perpetuate malnutrition, reduce the ability of adults to work and to give birth to healthy children, and erode children's ability to learn and lead productive, healthy, and happy lives. This truncation of human development undermines a country's potential for economic development – for generations to come.
There are strong, direct relationships between agricultural productivity, hunger, and poverty. Three-quarters of the world's poor live in rural areas and make their living from agriculture. Hunger and child malnutrition are greater in these areas than in urban areas. Moreover, the higher the proportion of the rural population that obtains its income solely from subsistence farming (without the benefit of pro-poor technologies and access to markets), the higher the incidence of malnutrition. Therefore, improvements in agricultural productivity aimed at small-scale farmers will benefit the rural poor first.
Increased agricultural productivity enables farmers to grow more food, which translates into better diets and, under market conditions that offer a level playing field, into higher farm incomes. With more money, farmers are more likely to diversify production and grow higher-value crops, benefiting not only themselves but the economy as a whole."
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